LOS  A.1 
LIBRARY 


By 

HARRY  L.  GILL 

TRACK  TEAM  COACH 

UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 


U.  OF  I.  SUPPLY  STORE 
(CO-OP) 

Champaign,  III. 
1922 


53814     214' 


PRINTED  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


COPYRIGHT  1922 
BY  THE  U.  OF  I.  SUPPLY  STORE 


MILES  &  PARRIS,  Printers,  Champaign,  Illinois 


INTRODUCTION 

Interest  in  all  forms  of  physical  education  is  to- 
day more  marked  than  ever  before,  and  the  value 
of  training,  such  as  a  boy  receives  in  track  and  field 
athletics,  is  now  recognized  as  of  great  importance 
in  his  education,  in  teaching  him  the  elements  of 

^  sportsmanship,  and  in  helping  him  to  build  a  strong, 

4><^  virile  body  which  will  be  an  asset  to  him  through- 
out his  life.  The  college  and  ex-college  track  and 
field  athletes  who  enrolled  for  military  or  naval 

*  service  in  the  great  war  were  almost  without  excep- 
tion found  to  be  free  from  physical  defects. 

In  the  majority  of  cases  the  coaches  charged 
with  the  instruction  of  the  young  track  athletes  in 
the  schools  in  this  country,  have  not  had  practical 
experience  in  all  of  the  events  which  are  found  on 

J>  the  usual  program.  The  author  of  these  pages,  who 
has  had  considerable  experience  both  as  a  competi- 
tor and  a  coach,  is  pleased  to  offer  the  result  of  his 
experience  to  such  as  these,  hoping  that  the  sugges- 
tions may  be  of  some  value  to  them. 

While  the  following  chapters  have  been  written 
primarily  for  track  and  field  coaches  and  athletes, 
at  the  same  time  it  is  hoped  that  they  may  be  of 
some  value  to  others  who  may  be  interested  in  track 

and  field  athletics 

3 


The  author  has  endeavored  to  make  his  explana- 
tions as  clear  as  possible  so  that  the  novice  may 
understand  the  progressions  in  the  form  in  the  vari- 
ous events.  Further,  since  he  has  written  these 
suggestions  for  instructional  purposes,  he  has 
avoided  historical  narrative  and  has  condensed  his 
material  as  much  as  possible. 

The  pictures  have  been  taken  of  men  in  action 
in  the  various  events  for  the  purpose  of  demonstrat- 
ing the  proper  form  by  stages. 

An  athlete  now  and  then  will  be  found  who  may 
excel  in  performance  while  using  a  different  form 
than  the  one  described,  but  in  the  great  majority 
of  instances  the  best  results  will  be  obtained  by  the 
athlete  who  uses  the  standard  form. 


SUGGESTIONS  TO  COACHES 

There  are  four  main  points  to  be  considered  in 
developing,  coaching,  and  conditioning  a  track  man 
or  track  team.  These  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  form  in  the  different  events  and  how  to 
teach  it. 

2.  The  selection  of  the  men  for  the  events  in 
which  they  can  make  the  best  records. 

3.  The  kind  and  amount  of  work  to  be    pre- 
scribed for  each  athlete. 

4.  The  care  of  the  body,  including  bathing,  mas- 
sage, diet,  and  sleep. 

The  success  of  a  track  coach  depends  largely 
upon  his  judgment  and  knowledge  of  the  foregoing 
items,  as  well  as  upon  his  ability  to  express  him- 
self, so  that  he  will  be  easily  understood  by  his 
pupils. 

In  order  to  acquire  this  judgment  and  knowledge, 
the  young  coach  should  practice  the  different  events, 
should  study  and  carefully  observe  athletes  in  ac- 
tion, and  should  consult  the  athletes  relative  to  their 
form  and  condition.  Many  of  the  best  coaches  of 
the  day  have  spent  lots  of  time  after  they  became 
coaches  in  acquiring  a  knowledge  of  the  events  in 
which  they  had  never  competed. 

The  man  who  has  been  a  hurdler,  pole-vaulter, 
or  sprinter  should  be  able  to  tell  at  a  glance  what 
mistakes  a  beginner  makes,  and  if  he  is  an  experi- 


enced  coach,  he  should  have  a  good  idea  whether 
the  faults  can  be  corrected  and,  if  so,  how.  If  the 
pole  vaulter's  run  is  wrong  or  his  method  of  carry- 
ing the  pole  is  bad,  he  notes  the  mistakes.  Further, 
he  should  be  able  to  note  wherein  the  athlete  is 
weak  or  undeveloped  and  to  prescribe  the  right  kind 
of  developmental  exercises  to  correct  the  weakness. 

In  addition,  it  may  be  suggested  that,  unless 
the  coach  is  enthusiastic  about  his  work  and  really 
enjoys  it,  he  will  probably  fail.  Further  than  this, 
the  coach  must  be  a  leader  and  a  good  disciplinarian. 

In  high  school  and  college  athletics,  correct  in- 
struction in  the  form  in  the  different  events  is  very 
important,  because  the  coach  is  continually  con- 
fronted with  the  problem  of  developing  new  men 
to  fill  the  vacancies  which  occur  each  season  and, 
likewise,  because  a  majority  of  the  candidates  who 
report  for  work  are  usually  men  who  have  had 
little  or  no  experience. 

It  is  generally  a  good  rule  in  teaching,  especially 
in  teaching  inexperienced  men,  to  explain  only  one 
point  at  a  time  and  not  to  take  up  new  lessons  until 
the  details  of  the  first  have  been  mastered.  This 
Applies  especially  to  such  events  as  jumping,  hur- 
dling, and  the  weight  events,  where  form  counts  for 
so  much  and  which  is  often  difficult  to  acquire. 

In  this  book,  each  of  the  regular  track  and  field 
events  used  in  intercollegiate  and  interscholastic 
competition  is  dealt  with,  both  from  the  standpoint 
of  the  fundamentals  of  the  beginner  and  the  final 
Avork  of  the  experienced  athlete  in  preparation  for 
the  contest. 

6 


In  dealing  with  the  different  events,  the  amount 
of  daily  work  prescribed  for  each  individual  (and 
this  is  a  very  important  item)  is  subject  to  a  great 
deal  of  variation.  The  work  suggested  in  these 
chapters  may  be  considered  as  an  average  for  a  col- 
lege man  of  nineteen  or  twenty  years  of  age.  For 
high  school  boys  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  years  of 
age,  the  work  should  be  somewhat  lighter. 

It  is  always  better  that  an  athlete  should  be  under- 
worked, rather  than  overworked,  but  this  should  not 
be  construed  as  meaning  that  the  coach  should  hesi- 
tate to  prescribe  a  fair  amount  of  work  for  his 
men.  The  athlete  who  is  afraid  of  work  usually 
never  amounts  to  much.  He  should  be  willing  and 
eager  for  work,  and  the  coach  should  properly  reg- 
ulate his  activities.  It  may  be  well  said  that,  in  the 
practice  of  track  athletics,  the  men  do  not  need  to 
be  driven,  but  they  should  be  impressed  with  the 
fact  that  they  must  exert  themselves  to  the  limit  to 
get  the  best  results  in  competition. 

In  conclusion,  the  best  age  for  boys  to  begin  the 
practice  of  track  and  field  athletics  is  when  they 
are  still  young.  At  this  time,  they  should  lay  the 
foundation  for  future  success  by  observing  the  laws 
of  health,  by  acquiring  the  proper  functional  devel- 
opment, and  by  working  by  easy  stages  for  stamina 
and  endurance.  Championships  are  not  easily  won, 
and  the  boy  who  would  be  a  champion  must  be  pre- 
pared to  work  faithfully  throughout  a  long  prepara- 
tory season,  which  may  be  several  years  in  length, 
and  to  forego  the  pleasures  which  will  dissipate  his 
strength,  in  order  to  achieve  success. 

7 


TRAINING 

I.  VALUE  OF  MASSAGE  FOR  TRACK  ATHLETES. 

Following  are  arguments  which  one  frequently 
hears  against  the  use  of  massage  for  athletes,  i,  If 
you  start  it  you  will  have  to  keep  it  up.  2,  It  weak- 
ens the  man  massaged.  3,  If  a  man  is  accustomed 
to  a  massage  before  a  contest  he  will  not  do  well 
if  for  some  reason  or  other  he  fails  to  receive  one. 
4,  It  does  not  pay  to  coddle  athletes. 

As  for  the  first,  massage  is  of  value  in  training 
an  athlete  and  should  be  kept  up  but  if  discontinued 
it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  the  man  affected 
will  be  incapacitated  for  competition.  As  regards 
the  second,  massage  is  passive  exercise  and  does 
not  weaken  a  man  any  more  than  active  exercise. 
In  fact  it  requires  no  exercise  of  the  will-  power 
on  the  part  of  the  subject  and,  if  properly  applied, 
is  beneficial.  If  the  third  contention  is  true  then 
the  best  remedy  would  be  to  see  that  the  massage 
is  given  before  the  contest.  There  is  no  reason  why 
a  man  should  not  always  have  a  good  rub-out  pre- 
paratory to  his  event.  If  he  has  been  accustomed 
to  massages  it  is  true  that  he  wTill  probably  note  the 
difference  if  he  does  not  get  one  before  the  meet. 
Fourth,  some  athletes  are  spoiled  by  too  much  at- 
tention but  this  is  the  fault  of  the  trainer. 

Summary — a  good  massage  both  before  and  after 
an  event  is  beneficial. 


II.  KIND  OF  MASSAGE  AND  WHEN  TO  APPLY. 

In  the  first  place  a  massage  should  be  pleasant  to 
the  athlete.  Too  many  rubbers  think  that  unless 
they  pound  and  bruise  the  man  who  is  on  the  table 
that  they  are  not  doing  him  any  good.  In  the  sec- 
ond place  a  massage  should  not  be  too  long  con- 
tinued. It  should  start  with  the  feet  and  progress 
up  toward  the  heart.  Then  the  fingers,  arms  and 
upper  body  should  be  rubbed.  The  fingers  of  the 
masseur  should  follow  the  veins  and  the  arteries. 
It  is  well  to  use  cocoa  butter  or  some  good  massage 
cream  or  liniment,  but  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  value  lies  in  the  rubbing  rather  than  in 
the  liniment. 

The  day  of  a  meet  the  man  should  warm  up  un- 
til he  has  a  good  sweat,  then  he  should  lie  down 
and  relax  all  of  his  muscles  and  have  the  trainer 
give  him  a  good  massage  just  before  he  goes  out 
for  his  event.  After  his  events  he  should  have 
a  rub-out  to  keep  him  from  getting  stiff. 

If  a  man  is  over-trained  and  the  coach  desires 
to  lay  him  off  for  a  day  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have 
him  get  a  rub  down  but  to  take  no  work  out. 

III.  COMMON    TRACK    AND    FIELD    INJURIES   AND 

THEIR  TREATMENT. 

i.  Shin  splints.  This  frequently  occurs  in  sprint- 
ers, runners,  and  hurdlers.  The  remedy  is  rest.  In 
addition,  massage  the  afflicted  part  and  apply  hot 
cloths  or  use  warm  antiphlogistine  or  paint  the  leg 
with  iodine  or,  better  still,  cover  the  sore  spots  with 

9 


a  layer  of  icthyol  to  the  thickness  of  a  stiver  dollar. 
Cover  with  paper  to  protect  the  clothing. 

2.  Pulled  tendons.     This  is  usually    caused    by 
overwork  or  by  straining  a  leg  that  has  not  been 
properly  warmed  up.     When  this  occurs  in  an  ag- 
gravated form  the  athlete  will  not  be  able  to  run 
for  several  weeks.     If  the  tear  is  but  slight,  by 
reinforcing  the  strained  part  with  adhesive  tape, 
he  may  be  able  to  go  through  his  distance. 

The  only  thing  that  can  be  done  for  a  man  who 
"breaks  down  behind"  is  to  insist  that  he  keep  off 
his  toes,  strap  up  the  leg  with  adhesive  tape  and 
apply  hot  applications  and  massage. 

3.  Sprained  ankles.     If  the  tendons  are  not  torn 
loose,  the  ankle  should  be  exercised  daily.    As  soon 
as  the  injury  occurs  apply  hot  cloths  to  the  ankle 
and  massage  it.     This  stimulates  circulation,    aids 
recovery  and  prevents  adhesions  forming.     If  the 
ankle   was   turned  outward   when   the   sprain  was 
received,  strap  adhesive  tape  over  the  outside  of  the 
ankle  to  prevent  further  injury,  then  walk  and  run 
being  careful  not  to  twist  the  angle  again.     If  the 
tendons  are  torn  at  the  attachment,  then  rest  is  nec- 
essary and  the  ankle  should  be  used  as  little  as 
possible. 

4.  Stone  bruises.     It  is  easier  to  prevent    these 
than  to  cure  them  after  they  have  occurred.     For 
prevention  wear  a  piece  of  soft  rubber  in  the  heels 
of  the  running  or  jumping  shoes.     It  is  used  by 
hurdlers  and  jumpers  in  all  of  the  larger  univer- 
sities. 

10 


If  a  stone  bruise  occurs  get  a  large  bunion  plas- 
ter and  place  it  on  the  foot  in  such  a  way  that  the 
pressure  will  come  outside  of  the  sore  spot. 

5.  Abrasion    and    nibbed    spots.     One    of    the 
most  common  difficulties  with  track  men  is    sore 
feet.     This  can  usually  be  prevented  by  a  careful 
selection  of   shoes.     Not  very   many   men   should 
wear   shoes  narrower  than   C  and  most  of  them 
should  wear  shoes  on  the  D  or  E  last.     The  most 
common  injury  is  caused  by  wearing  shoes  which 
are  too  short.     If    the    shoe    rubs    wear    either    a 
chamois  pusher  or  a  clean  sock.     Keep  the   foot 
and  socks  clean  and  if  the  skin  is  rubbed  off  a  toe, 
cover  the  affected  part  with  a  bandage  and  a  piece 
of  adhesive  tape. 

6.  Miscellaneous.    Wash  cuts  with  an  antiseptic 
solution.     Lysol  is  good.     For  boils  keep  the  boil 
covered  with  a  hot  poultice  or  place  a  wet  towel 
on  the  boil,  and  keep  a  hot  water  bottle  on  it.    The 
reason  for  this  is  that  the  agents  in  the  blood,  which 
fight  disease  germs,  such  as  the  germs    in   a    boil, 
work  better  in  a  warm  medium. 

7.  Training  Diet. '  The  diet  should    consist    of 
vegetables,  fresh  lean  meat,  such  as  roast  beef  or 
steak,  roast  mutton  or  boiled  chicken,  toast  or  bread 
with  butter,  fruits,  cereals,  boiled  or  poached  eggs. 
A  sample  day's  diet  would  be  as  follows : 

Breakfast — Fruit,  cereal  (preferably  rolled  oats, 
rolled  wheat  or  other  home  cooked  cereals),  toast, 
one  glass  of  milk  or  cup  of  coffee. 

11 


Luncheon — Poached  egg  or  plain  omelets,  mashed 
or  baked  potatoes,  lima  beans  or  garden  peas,  bread 
and  butter,  fruit,  milk,  tea  or  water. 

Dinner — Roast  beef  or  mutton,  lettuce  salad, 
creamed  potatoes,  bread  and  butter,  custard  pud- 
ding or  fruit,  milk,  tea  or  water. 

8.  //  cpnstipated.  Try  to  have  the  bowels  move 
every  day  at  the  same  time.  Drink  plenty  of  water 
and  eat  such  foods  as  carrots,  lettuce,  asparagus, 
turnips,  celery  and  cabbage.  Eat  also  fruits,  figs, 
primes,  and  cereals  that  contain  bran.  Avoid  fried 
and  greasy  foods,  rich  puddings,  and  pastry,  fat 
meats  and  new  breads. 


12 


EQUIPMENT 

A  great  deal  of  care  should  be  exercised  in  se- 
lecting the  equipment  to  be  used  by  track  and  field 
men.  All  of  the  members  of  the  teams  should  be 
provided  with  sweat  shirts  and  fleece-lined  drawers 
of  the  same  material,  in  addition  to  the  regular 
track  suits,  for  use  in  cold  weather. 

The  sprinters,  runners  and  hurdlers  should  use 
a  light  or  medium  weight  running  shoe  with  six 
spikes  set  in  the  sole.  Short  and  sharp  spikes  should 
be  used  on  hard  and  dry  tracks,  and  full  length 
spikes  are  necessary  when  running  on  a  soft  track. 
Hurdlers  should  wear  a  pad  of  sponge  rubber, 
about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  inside  the  heel 
of  the  shoe  to  lessen  the  jar,  and  to  prevent  heel 
bruises.  If  the  hurdle  races  are  on  the  grass,  or 
on  slippery  tracks,  heel  spikes  should  be  worn.  For 
cross-country  running  a  shoe  which  is  very  similar 
to  the  jumping  shoe  is  recommended.  The  cross- 
country shoe  has  no  spike  in  the  heel.  It  is  made 
either  with  or  without  spikes  in  the  sole,  depending 
upon  whether  they  are  to  be  used  on  the  pave- 
ment. 

The  jumpers,  vaulters  and  weight  men  should 
use  the  standard  jumping  shoe  which  has  six  spikes 
in  the  sole  and  two  in  the  heel.  The  heel  has  a  re- 
inforced counter  to  help  in  preventing  the  heel 
from  turning  to  the  side.  For  men  with  weak 
ankles  the  high  top  shoe  is  recommended. 

13 


Special  care  should  be  exercised  in  fitting  the 
shoes.  The  majority  of  athletes  should  wear  shoes 
made  on  the  "D"  last.  A  great  many  men  make 
the  mistake  of  wearing  shoes  which  are  too  short. 
When  the  shoe  is  laced  on  the  foot,  there  should 
be  a  space  of  about  one-quarter  of  an  inch  between 
the  big  toe  and  the  end  of  the  shoe. 

The  standard  shot,  javelin, 'hammer  and  discus 
should  be  used.  The  brass  covered  shot  and  ham- 
mer are  best  because  they  keep  their  shape  and 
resist  wear  better  than  the  solid  lead  implements. 
The  hammer  wire  should  be  fastened  to  a  swivel 
set  in  the  hammer  head.  This  is  to  lessen  the 
chance  of  the  wire  breaking.  It  is  well  to  keep 
a  supply  of  36  piano  wire  on  hand  for  handles.  If 
the  double  grips  are  used  they  should  be  made 
triangular  in  shape  just  wide  enough  across  the 
top  to  fit  the  hand.  One  of  the  grips  should  be 
one-half  inch  shorter  than  the  other.  If  the  single 
grip  is  used  it  should  be  made  triangular  in  shape 
and  of  the  width  of  the  hand.  For  traveling  pur- 
poses special  made  leather  bags  are  advised. 


14 


CONSTRUCTION  of  TRACK  AND  FIELD 

I.  CHARACTER  OF  THE  TRACK. 

Most  tracks  are  one-quarter  of  a  mile  long  and 
oval  in  shape.  These  tracks  usually  have  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty  yards  straight-a-way  on  the  home 
stretch  for  the  hundred-yard  dash  and  the  high 
hurdles.  This  necessitates  running  the  two  hundred 
and  twenty-yard  dash  and  the  low  hurdles  around 
the  turn,  consequently  some  tracks  are  built  with 
a  22O-yard  straight-a-way  on  one  side. 

This  is  highly  desirable  when  it  is  possible  to  lay 
out  the  long  straight-a-way.  On  such  tracks  the 
440  starts  at  the  same  place  as  the  220  and  finishes 
on  the  other  side. 

II.  TRACK  MEASUREMENTS. 

The  track  is  measured  12  inches  from  the  pole. 
The  old  method  of  measuring  was  to  measure  18 
inches  from  the  pole,  but,  in  order  to  make  meas- 
urements conform  with  the  Olympic  rules,  the  Na- 
tional Collegiate  Track  Rules  Committee  adopted 
this  rule  for  measuring.  Where  possible  it  is  de- 
sirable to  have  the  pole  or  inside  edge  of  the  track 
marked  with  a  narrow  cement  curb.  This  gives 
a  much  neater  appearance  to  the  track,  is  more 
durable,  and  is  required  by  the  rules  if  records  are 
accepted. 

Iron  finish  posts  should  be  firmly  set  in  the 
ground  at  the  various  finish  stations,  and  iron 

15 


stakes,  marking  the  location  of  the  hurdles,  starts 
of  relays  and  touch-off  zones  should  be  permanent- 
ly located.  Great  care  should  me  taken  in  survey- 
ing a  track  to  get  all  of  the  measurements  correct. 

When  relays  are  run  in  lanes  all  the  way 
around  the  track,  great  care  must  be  exercised  to 
get  the  starting  places  and  touch-off  zones  exact. 

Never  try  to  measure  the  lanes  around  a  curve 
with  a  tape  measure.  Always  have  the  measure- 
ments made  by  a  surveyor. 

III.   CONSTITUTION  OF  THE  TRACK. 

No  two  tracks  can  be  built  just  alike  because  the 
difference  in  the  terrain  calls  for  different  construc- 
tion. When  a  track  is  being  newly  built  and  no  ex- 
pense is  to  be  spared,  it  is  advisable  to  excavate 
to  a  depth  of  about  two  feet.  A  heavy  layer  of 
coarse  stone  should  be  first  laid  and  on  top  of  this 
place  a  deep  layer  of  coarse  cinders.  This  should 
be  rolled  and  packed  until  the  track  is  level  and 
even.  On  top  of  this  place  two  or  three  inches  of 
fine  cinders,  roll  well,  and  add  two  inches  of  sifted 
soft-coal  ashes.  This  surface  binds  together  well 
and  makes  a  very  fast  and  exceptionally  durable 
track.  If  soft-coal  ashes  are  not  available,  use  a 
top  dressing  of  fine  sifted  cinders  mixed  with  clay. 

This  will  make  an  ideal  track — in  fact,  if  done 
properly  and  kept  in  good  condition,  there  will  be 
none  better  in  the  country.  It  will  have  all  the 
advantages  of  a  cinder  track,  in  that  it  can  not 
become  muddy  when  wet,  and  weeds  will  not  grow 
on  it.  It  will  have  the  appearance  of  a  mixture 

16 


of  dirt  and  cinders,  and  when  properly  drained, 
makes  the  best  wet  weather  track.  The  same  prep- 
aration makes  the  finest  runways  for  pole  vaulting, 
high  jumping  and  broad  jumping. 

One  of  the  distinctive  features  of  such  tracks 
and  runways  is  that  they  require  less  care  than 
any  other  type.  It  is  easily  leveled  and  only  has 
to  be  resurfaced  about  every  five  years,  which  pro- 
cess is  also  very  simple.  Its  only  disadvantage  is, 
that  in  weather  that  is  too  dry,  it  gets  too  hard  and 
should  be  watered  frequently. 

The  best  way  of  keeping  the  track  in  good 
condition  is  as  follows :  First,  have  a  pile  of  sifted 
ashes  deposited  near  the  track.  If  they  stand  here 
over  winter  so  much  the  better.  Second,  rake  the 
track  and  keep  the  surface  level  and  smooth.  Third, 
sift  the  fine  ashes,  then  sprinkle  them  over  the  track. 
This  can  be  done  by  scattering  them  with  a  shovel. 
Fourth,  rake  the  track,  then  float  it,  then  roll  it 
with  a  heavy  roller.  After  rolling,  drag  it  with  a 
heavy  plank  which  has  a  piece  of  carpet  or  canvas 
nailed  to  the  under  side.  To  get  a  track  in  perfect 
condition  it  is  necessary  to  float,  rake,  roll  and  drag 
it  a  good  many  times.  When  the  cinders  do  not 
pack  readily  it  is  necessary  to  mix  clay  with  them. 
Equal  parts  of  clay  and  steam  boiler  cinders 
screened  through  a  ^4 -inch  mesh  will  usually  give 
the  best  results.  If  a  track  is  covered  with  a  two- 
inch  layer,  it  will  be  five  years  before  it  needs  a 
second  dressing. 

The  track  should  slope  gradually  toward  the  in- 
side. Underneath  the  track,  tile  should  be  laid  to 

17 


carry  off  the  water.  These  tile  should  empty  into 
a  large  drain  on  the  edge  of  the  field.  Most  tracks 
are  laid  out  around  the  athletic  field  and  usually 
this  field  is  likewise  drained.  If  so  the  large  drain 
pipe  around  the  inside  of  the  track  can  also  be  used 
to  carry  off  the  water  which  drains  from  the  field. 

A  good  dirt  track  is  just  as  fast  a  track,  but  is 
cannot  be  used  in  wet  weather,  while  most  com- 
position tracks  are  faster  when  moderately  wet  than 
when  dry. 

IV.    CONSTRUCTION  OF  THE  FIELD. 

The  location  of  the  pits,  circles  and  javelin  throw 
line  is  shown  on  the  diagram.  The  pits  should  be 
dug  out  to  a  depth  of  one  foot  and  filled  with  fine 
sand  and  a  little  loam,  shavings  or  sawdust  mixed. 
The  high  jump  and  pole  vault  pits  should  be  about 
14  feet  square  and  the  broad  jump  6'  x  14'.  The 
pits  and  runways  for  the  broad  jump  and  pole  vault 
'  should  be  so  constructed  that  they  may  be  ap- 
proached from  either  direction.  The  runways  for 
the  broad  jump  and  pole  vault  should  be  built  of 
the  same  material  as  the  track  and  a  trifle  higher 
than  the  level  of  the  field.  For  the  convenience 
of  the  contestants,  when  they  are  getting  their  take- 
offs  in  the  broad  jump  and  the  pole  vault,  it  is 
well  to  have  two  foot  intervals  marked  on  the  sides 
of  the  runways. 

The  runway  for  the  high  jump  should  be  com- 
posed of  the  same  material  as  the  track.  A  sod 
take-off  is  satisfactory  but  it  will  not  stand  con- 

18 


tinual  practice.     The  approach  should  be  a  semi- 
circle thirty  feet  in  diameter  and  should  be  level. 

For  the  purpose  of  marking  the  boundary  of  the 
discus,  hammer,  and  shot  put  rings,  an  iron  band 
painted  white  and  sunk  level  with  the  ground  is 
very  good.  A  piece  of  wood  twelve  feet  long  and 
two  inches  wide  and  painted  white  should  be  used 
to  mark  the  javelin  throw  line. 


19 


HOW  TO  RUN  OFF  A  MEET 

I.    GENERAL. 

The  success  of  any  track  and  field  meet  depends 
upon  three  factors :  first,  weather  conditions ;  sec- 
ond, class  of  the  meet;  and  third,  the  method  of 
conducting  the  meet.  No  manager  is  responsible 
for  the  weather;  the  class  of  competition  is  partly, 
at  least,  out  of  his  hands ;  but  he  can  and  should  see 
to  it  that  the  meet  is  properly  run  off. 

For  a  big  meet,  it  is  well  to  have  one  man  abso- 
lutely in  charge  of  arrangements,  grounds,  program, 
etc.  The  best  executive  is  the  man  who  gets  others 
to  do  the  work.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  ex- 
ecutive in  charge  of  a  track  or  relay  meet.  Many 
men  fail  in  this  capacity  because  they  try  to  do 
everything  themselves.  The  following  committees 
should  be  appointed  to  look  after  each  special 
branch  of  the  work: 

i.  Games  Committee.  This  committee  should 
have  general  supervision  of  the  meet  the  days  of 
the  games.  It  should  arrange  for  the  officials,  see 
that  they  are  all  assigned  badges  and  notified  re- 
garding their  duties.  Furthermore,  this  committee 
should  see  that  yarn  is  provided  for  the  finish  lines ; 
Kelly  pool  balls  for  the  clerk  of  the  course,  to  use 
when  the  contestants  draw  for  places ;  cross  bars  for 
the  pole  vault  and  high  jump ;  stop  watches,  batons 
for  the  relays ;  rakes  and  spades  for  the  jumping 

20 


pits,  hurdles,  jumping  standards,  shot,  discus,  ham- 
mer, javelin,  etc. 

This  work  should  be  subject  to  the  approval  of 
the  manager,  but  he  should  allow  the  committee 
to  do  the  work  and  see  that  they  do  it. 

2.  Program  Committee.     This  committee  should 
get  out  the  program,  let  the  contract  for  printing, 
look  after  the  distribution  of    the    programs,    and 
where  advertising  is  solicited,  secure  what  advertis- 
ing is  desired. 

3.  Grounds  Committee.    This  committee  usually 
consists  of  the  ground  keeper  and  his  assistants.   If 
there  is  no  regular  care-taker,  then  it  is  advisable 
to  place  one  man  in  charge  of  the  work  of  getting 
the  track  and  grounds  in  shape. 

4.  Reception  Committee.     In  the  case  of    High 
School  meets  and  sometimes  for  big  meets,  com- 
mittees are  appointed  to  look  after  the  visitors.  This 
committee  should  see  that  every  visiting  coach  is 
given  his  tickets,  a  program  and  numbers.    Visiting 
coaches  always  appreciate  this  very  much  because 
it  is  always  considerable  trouble  to  hunt  up  the  man- 
ager in  a  strange  place.     Further,  this  eliminates 
confusion  the  day  of  the  meet. 

II.   OFFICIALS. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  choosing  offi- 
cials. In  selecting  officials,  try  to  get  men  who  not 
only  know  the  rules  and  have  good  judgment  in  en- 
forcing them,  but  also  pick  men  who  will  take  an 
interest  in  getting  the  events  off  on  time.  One  man 

21 


should  be  designated  as  head  finish  judge,  one  as 
head  tinier,  one  as  head  judge  of  the  weights,  one 
as  head  judge  of  the  jumps. 

It  is  advisable  to  furnish  each  official  with  a 
typewritten  statement  which  will  tell  him  where 
to  report,  the  time  to  report,  and  to  whom  he  should 
report.  It  is  also  well  to  give  each  official  a  pro- 
gram and  his  ticket  of  admission.  A  great  deal 
depends  upon  the  clerk  of  the  course  who  looks 
after  the  drawing  for  places  and  keeps  the  events 
going  on  scheduled  time. 

III.   GROUNDS. 

Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the 
grounds,  are  properly  laid  out  and  everything  ar- 
ranged in  advance.  The  running  lanes  should  be 
marked  out,  the  shot-put,  discus,  and  hammer 
throwing  circles  outlined,  jumping  pits  spaded  up 
and  the  take-off  boards  properly  set. 

It  is  always  advisable  to  have  a  surveyor  check 
up  measurements,  starting  places,  touch-off  zones 
and  finish  lines.  Further,  he  should  see  that  the 
stands  for  the  vaulting  and  jumping  standards  are 
level. 

Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  see  that 
comfort  of  the  spectators  has  been  attended  to  and 
to  be  sure  that  they  will  not  be  allowed  upon  the 
track.  One  reason  why  track  and  field  events  have 
not  been  popular  in  some  sections  is  because  the 
spectators  often  do  not  know  what  is  taking  place. 
The  announcer  should  tell  the  spectators  before  the 
start  of  the  dashes,  hurdles,  and  relays,  the  name 

22 


of  the  contestant  who  is  running  in  the  first  lane, 
second  lane,  etc.  Further,  it  is  advisable  to  an- 
nounce the  name  of  the  man  putting  the  shot  or 
competing  in  the  other  field  events,  and  after  their 
performances  he  should  announce  the  results.  This 
is  sometimes  accomplished  by  having  a  stand  on 
the  field  to  which  is  hung  the  number  of  the  com- 
petitor and  after  it  the  number  of  feet  and  inches 
he  jumped,  threw  the  javelin,  etc. 

IV.   CONTESTANTS. 

The  coaches  are  responsible  for  seeing  that  the 
contestants  are  acquainted  with  the  rules  and  that 
they  report  promptly  on  time  for  their  various 
events.  It  is  almost  always  best  to  run  off  the 
meet  on  a  time  schedule.  When  this  is  done  each 
coach  should  be  given  a  copy  of  the  schedule,  so 
that  he  will  know  when  his  events  occur.  This 
places  the  responsibility  upon  him  and  ensures  that 
the  men  will  be  on  time  for  the  events. 

Coaches  and  trainers  should  never  accompany 
the  contestants  to  the  starting  point  or  inner 
grounds,  for  two  reasons :  one  is  that  the  men 
should  be  taught  to  do  their  best  without  the  assist- 
ance of  the  coach  during  the  event;  and  the  other 
is  that  keeping  the  coaches  off  the  track  and  inner 
grounds  eliminates  jockeying. 


23 


SPRINTS 

I.  TRAINING. 

A  sprinter  does  not  require  so  strenuous  train- 
ing as  a  distance  runner.  A  distance  run  is  a  test 
of  endurance,  and  the  sprint,  especially  the  short 
dash,  a  test  of  speed.  At  the  same  time  it  will  pay 
the  sprinter  to  do  some  work  both  in  the  fall  and 
winter  as  well  as  in  the  spring.  A  good  high  school 
or  college  sprinter  is  often  on  the  football  or  bas- 
ketball teams  and  sometimes  on  both,  and  he  does 
not  have  time  or  strength  for  work  in  sprinting 
in  the  fall  and  winter.  If  he  is  not  out  for  the 
other  teams  he  should  practice  sprinting  nearly 
every  day  in  the  fall,  and  in  the  winter  he  should 
take  plenty  of  calisthenic  exercises,  with  special  em- 
phasis given  to  developing  his  abdominal  muscles, 
and  practicing  deep  breathing.  Care  should  be 
taken  in  running  on  the  boards  not  to  get  sore  shins. 
This  is  a  common  trouble  for  sprinters,  especially 
young  sprinters. 

II.  THE  START. 

(a)  The  starting  holes    should    be    dug    deep 
enough  to  provide  a  good  brace  for  the  feet.%    Dig 
the  holes  with  the  spikes  or  with  a  putty  knife  and 
be  sure  to  make  the  back  of  the  hole  straight  up 
and  down  or  nearly  so.    It  is  well  to  stamp  the  back 
of  the  hole  to  make  sure  that  it  is  solid. 

(b)  It  is  impossible  to  establish  a  definite  rule 
for  the  places  where  the  holes  are  to  be  dug  because 

24 


this  will  vary  with  the  length  of  the  arms  and  legs 
of  the  individuals.  As  a  rule  the  front  hole  should 
be  about  12  inches  from  the  starting  mark  and  the 
back  knee  should  be  about  even  with  the  ball  of  the 
foot. 

(c)  The  hands  should  touch  the  ground  with  the 
thumbs  and  fingers  toward  the  front,  fingers  well 
together  and  hands  about  18  inches  apart. 

(d.)  When  in  a  starting  position,  waiting  for 
the  pistol,  the  back  knee  should  be  a  few  inches 
higher  than  the  ankle.  The  back  is  parallel  with 
the  ground  and  the  head  is  in  a  natural  position. 
It  is  well  to  look  a  few  yards  ahead,  but  it  is  not 
advisable  to  try  to  look  clear  down  the  track.  The 
weight  is  mostly  on  the  front  foot  and  hands,  and 
the  legs  are  relaxed.  The  push  is  mostly  from  the 
front  leg.  If  the  start  is  with  the  left  foot  ahead 
the  right  arm  goes  back  and  the  left  arm  forward 
as  the  right  leg  takes  the  first  step. 

(e)  When  called  to  the  marks,  place  the  feet 
comfortably  in  the  holes  and  rest  the  weight  with 
the  right  knee  on  the  ground.  When  the  command 
"get  set"  is  given,  come  up  to  the  proper  crouched 
position  and  remember  not  to  tighten  up  the  mus- 
cles, but  to  get  fully  set  and  then  be  mentally  alert, 
awaiting  the  starting  signal.  Do  not  try  to  beat 
the  gun  or  to  anticipate  the  start.  At  the  report 
of  the  pistol  drive  forward  with  the  front  leg  and 

snap  the  arms  into  the  running  motion. 

25 


III.  THE  FORM. 

The  first  three  or  four  steps  should  be  short  and 
quick  for  the  purpose  of  getting  up  momentum.  If 
the  first  steps  are  too  long  they  will  have  a  tendency 
to  cause  the  runner  to  straighten  up  too  soon.  He 
should  not  be  clear  up  until  he  has  gone  at  least 
ten  yards.  At  the  same  time  he  should  be  careful 
to  get  his  legs  under  him.  If  the  weight  is  leaned 
too  far  forward,  it  would  make  the  recovery  more 
difficult  and  will  cause  the  runner  to  stumble.  He 
should  ascertain  by  practice  just  how  far  forward 
to  lean  his  weight. 

The  sprinter  should  run  well  up  on  his  toes, 
in  fact  higher  than  in  any  other  race.  The  leg 
should  come  up  with  the  toe  pointed  straight  ahead, 
and  the  foot  should  land  well  out  in  front.  Lift  the 
legs  straight  up  in  front  of  the  body,  keeping  them 
in  the  same  plane.  Some  runners  acquire  a  reach- 
ing motion  with  the  hip  which  increases  the  length 
of  the  stride.  This  is  advantageous  to  sprinters 
with  short  legs.  This  should  not  be  discouraged 
but  few  men  can  do  it  properly. 

Keep  the  arms  slightly  bent  at  the  elbow  and 
push  them  forward  with  a  snap.  The  arm  motion 
is  from  the  shoulder  and  not  the  elbow.  There 
should  also  be  a  good  backward  swing.  The 
swing  of  the  arms  should  be  a  natural  one, 
but  the  naturalness  should  be  in  keeping  with  good 
form.  The  arm-swing  should  be  slightly  across 
the  body  and  as  high  as  the  chest.  In  this  motion 
the  left  hand,  for  example,  will  reach  in  front  to 

26 


the  middle  of  the  chest  on  the  downward  step  of 
the  right  foot.  When  the  left  foot  hits  the  ground 
on  the  next  step,  the  right  hand  will  come  to  the 
point  where  the  left  one  had  been  on  the  preceding 
stride.  Some  beginniners  do  not  use  the  arms 
enough  in  sprinting. 

At  the  finish  of  a  race  use  the  arms  vigorously, 
lift  the  knees  higher  and  do  not  chop  the  stride.  The 
body  should  lean  slightly  forward  and  the  head 
should  be  held  in  a  natural  position. 

Before  getting  on  the  marks  take  several  deep 
breaths.  Take  time  to  do  this  and  do  not  hurry  to 
get  down.  Let  the  others  wait  for  you.  The  starter 
will  not  give  the  "get  set"  signal  until  all  men  are 
on  their  marks.  Do  not  worry  about  breathing  in 
the  race  but  breathe  in  a  most  natural  way.  After 
a  hard  220  take  a  couple  of  deep  breaths.  It  will  be 
found  refreshing. 

Every  sprinter  should  learn  how  to  go  a  little 
faster  the  last  ten  yards.  To  do  this,  redouble  your 
efforts,  lift  the  knees  higher  and  swing  the  arms 
harder.  A  proper  throw  and  twist  of  the  body  at 
the  finish  is  an  advantage.  This  throw  may  be  made 
by  leaning  the  chest  and  upper  body  forward  when 
breasting  the  tape.  This  motion  must  be  timed  ex- 
actly or  it  will  not  be  effective. 

In  starting  a  220  dash  around  the  curve  usually 
the  three  inner  lanes  are  desirable  because  as  a  rule 
the  track  is  beaten  better,  and,  then  to,  the  sprinter 
starts  behind  and  can  see  how  fast  the  field  in  front 
of  him  are  running  the  first  100  yards.  In  running 

21 


on  a  curve  do  not  run  in  the  middle  of  the  lane  but 
keep  as  close  to  the  inside  as  possible. 

Do  not  run  trials  except  on  Saturday  and  then  in 
competition.  Do  not  run  the  full  distance  at  top 
speed.  It  is  a  good  plan  for  220  men  to  run  the 
first  120  yards  at  a  good  comfortable  speed  and  then 
sprint  for  the  finish  line.  Practice  plenty  of  starts 
but  do  not  do  any  jogging  except  to  warm  up. 

IV.  TRAINING  FOR  SPRING  MEETS. 

If  the  Sprinter  is  starting  his  preparation  for  the 
spring  meets  he  should  precede  as  follows :  The 
first  few  days  should  be  spent  in  taking  easy  runs 
of  about  100  yards  up  and  down  the  track,  running 
at  about  a  half  mile  gait.  A  few  minutes'  rest  should 
be  taken  before  each  run.  In  this  work  particular 
attention  should  be  given  to  running  in  good  form. 
At  this  time  regular  sprinting  starts  and  high  speed 
work  should  not  be  taken.  After  several  days  of 
this  work  and  if  the  weather  is  warm,  a  few  starts 
may  be  taken  with  the  pistol  in  addition  to  the  above 
work.  No  starts  should  be  taken  until  the  runner 
is  well  warmed  up.  After  two  or  three  weeks  of  this 
training  the  daily  schedule  for  a  week's  work  should 
be  as  follows : 

Monday — Warm  up  by  running  up  and  clown  the 
track  a  few  times.  Then  take  four  or  five  starts 
with  the  pistol  and  sprint  from  25  to  50  yards  at 
top  speed.  Follow  this  by  taking  two  or  three  runs 
of  from  100  to  150  yards  in  length  running  three- 
fourths  of  the  distance  at  half  milers  gait  and 
sprinting  the  last  fourth  at  top  speed.  This  work  is 

28 


intended  to  develop  finishing  power  and  endurance. 
If  the  man  is  training  for  both  the  100  and  220  yard 
dashes,  he  should  be  given  considerable  in  150,  220, 
and  300  yards,  but  these  runs  should  be  at  moderate 
speed. 

Tuesday — Warm  up  as  on  Monday,  run  two 
heats  of  75  yards  and  then  take  a  few  more  easy 
runs  up  and  down  the  track. 

Wednesday: — The  same  as  Monday. 

Thursday — Warm  up,  take  two  or  three  starts 
with  the  pistol  and  then  run  two  dashes  of  from  50 
to  60  yards.  Then  run  300  yards  at  about  a  quar- 
ter mile  gait. 

Friday — Warm  up  and  take  a  few  starts  with  the 
pistol. 

Saturday — Trials.  If  the  sprinter  is  running  only 
the  100  yards  he  should  run  two  heats.  If  he  runs 
the  220  also,  then  he  should  run  one  heat  of  the  100 
and  one  of  the  220.  Both  trials  should  be  under 
competitive  conditions. 

A  sprinter  should  have  from  one  to  two  days  rest 
before  a  meet  and  if  the  meets  are  held  on  consec- 
utive Saturdays  the  schedule  of  work  outlined 
above  should  be  reduced. 

V.  COMMON  FAULTS. 

i."     Not  raising  the  back  leg  high  enough   at    the 

command  "get  set." 

2.     Not  digging  the  holes  deep  enough. 
^.     Making  the  first  step  too  long. 


5* 

6, 


9- 


Failing  to  swing  one  arm  ahead  and  the  other 

back  when  leaving  the  mark. 

Straightening  up  too  soon. 

Swinging  the  arms  too  much  across  the  body. 

Running  with  the  toes  turned  out. 

Kicking  the  feet  up  too  high  behind  the  body, 

and  leaning  the  body  too  far  forward. 

Throwing  the   head    back    and    chopping    the 

stride. 


Illustration   1 


Illustration  I.  Shows  the  position  taken  by  the 
sprinter  at  the  command,  "Take  your  marks."  Note 
that  the  position  is  comfortable,  and  the  muscles 
are  relaxed.  The  runner  will  only  need  to  raise 
the  back  leg  to  come  to  a  set  position. 


Illustration  2 

Illustration  2.  Shows  the  "Set"  position.  The 
weight  is  mostly  on  the  forward  foot  and  hands. 
The  hands  are  about  12  inches  in  front  of  the  left 
foot.  The  right  knee  is  slightly  higher  than  the 
right  ankle.  The  back  is  parallel  to  the  ground  and 
the  head  is  in  a  natural  position.  The  eyes  are  look- 

31 


ing  down  the  track  a  few  feet.     The  sprinter  is  al- 
ready to  drive  forward  at  the  report  of  the  pistol. 


Illustration  3 

Illustration  3.  Shows  the  first  movements  of  the 
sprinter  after  the  pistol  is  fired.  The  right  arm  is 
coming  back  and  the  left  arm  is  going  forward.  The 
right  foot  is  just  starting  forward  for  the  first 
step.  Note  how  far  the  body  is  leaning  forward. 


32 


Illustration  4 


Illustration  4.  Shows  the  runner  at  the  beginning 
of  the  third  step.  Note  how  the  arms  are  moving 
in  unison  with  the  legs.  Also  note  that  the  body  is 
slightly  more  erect  than  in  Illustration  3. 


33 


Illustration  5 

Illustration  5.  Shows  the  runner  ten  yards  from 
the  starring  mark.  He  is  now  getting  into  full 
stride,  but  he  has  not  yet  straightened  up  quite  so 
much  as  he  will  be  when  he  is  in  his  natural  sprint- 
ing position. 


34 


THE  MIDDLE  DISTANCE  RUNS 

I.  PRELIMINARY  TRAINING. 

Since  it  requires  a  great  deal  of  endurance  to 
run  the  middle  distance  races,  the  man  who  would 
run  the  440  and  880  should  begin  training  several 
months  before  the  time  of  competition.  An  ideal 
plan  would  be  for  the  runner  to  start  in  the  Fall 
with  cross  country  work.  He  should  take  easy 
runs  every  other  day  and  gradually  increase  the 
distance.  If  possible,  run  in  the  country  and  keep 
off  the  pavements.  However,  a  moderate  amount 
of  running  on  the  pavements  is  better  than  running 
indoors.  After  three  months  of  cross-country  run- 
ning, in  the  Fall,  the  middle  distance  runner  should 
substitute  gymnasium  work  for  actual  running. 
Basket  ball,  in  moderation,  is  excellent  for  middle 
distance  runners,  as  it  adds  variety  to  the  training. 
It  should  never  take  the  place  of  actual  running, 
however.  General  calesthenics  are  splendid  for 
body  building  purposes  and  should  be  used  through- 
out the  training  season. 

In  the  winter,  if  the  weather  permits,  continue 
cross-country  runnihg  during  January  and  Febru- 
ary. If  the  weather  conditions  make  it  inadvisable 
to  run  outdoors,  and  an  indoor  track  is  available, 
run  on  the  indoor  track.  Of  course,  if  the  competi- 
tor is  training  for  indoor  meets,  the  work  indoors 
will  be  more  strenuous  than  if  his  work  is  prelim- 
inary to  the  outdoor  meets  in  the  spring. 

35 


Take  a  couple  of  weeks'  rest  between  the  winter 
training  period  and  the  spring  work  outdoors.  Out- 
door training,  when  possible,  should  begin  about 
eight  weeks  before  the  first  regular  track  meets  are 
scheduled. 

II.  OUTDOOR  TRAINING  SCHEDULE. 

The  kind  and  the  amount  of  work  given  to  the 
individual  members  of  the  team  will  depend  upon 
their  previous  experience,  and,  the  amount  of  pre- 
liminary training  which  they  have  had.  The  aver- 
age amount  and  kind  would  be  about  as  follows : 
The  first  week  should  be  spent  in  light  running,  for 
form,  at  distances  of  about  a  quarter  mile.  Run 
two  or  three  separate  quarters  each  day,  with  suf- 
ficient rest  between  each.  Remember  that  these 
should  only  be  taken  at  a  moderate  pace,  not  jog- 
ging and  not  sprinting,  but  just  fast  enough  to  ac- 
quire a  running  stride.  At  this  stage  of  the  -work 
the  runners  should  run  enough  to  get  muscle  sore- 
ness to  a  slight  degree.  After  the  muscular  sore- 
ness of  the  first  few  days  has  passed  away,  the  run- 
ner's condition  will  permit  of  a  slight  increase  in 
the  amount  and  severity  of  the  work. 

Since  judgment  of  pace  is  a  very  important  es- 
sential in  middle  distance  running,  the  runner 
should  begin  early  in  the  season  to  practice  judg- 
ing his  pace  at  different  distances.  The  coach  should 
time  him  in  his  daily  work-outs  so  that  the  runner 
will  learn  to  judge  his  speeds  within  one  second 
of  the  actual  running  time  for  the  various  distances 
over  which  he  practices.  This  daily  practice  and 

36 


timing  of  the  runners  should  not  be  confused  with 
time  trials.  The  time  in  this  practice  will  be  much 
slower  than  the  runner's  racing  speed  if  he  is  run- 
ning his  full  distance. 

It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  the  beginner  run  with 
the  experienced  men  since  they  will  help  to  teach 
the  newcomers  the  pace  and  the  form. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  running  for  training 
purposes :  first,  running  about  three-fourths  of  the 
actual  distance  at  racing  speed,  for  the  purpose  of 
judging  pace.  For  instance,  in  the  440  training, 
the  runner  should  run  300  yards  at  quarter  mile 
speed.  For  the  "half  mile  he  should  run  600  or  660 
yards  at  half  mile  speed.  Second,  running  the  full 
distance  of  the  race  at  a  pace  somewhat  slower 
than  the  athlete  is  capable  of  in  actual  competition. 
This  training  is  for  the  purpose  of  getting  the  run- 
ner familiar  with  the  distance  of  his  race.  Third, 
running  over  distance  at  a  pace  slower  than  in  either 
of  the  other  methods  just  described.  This  is  excel- 
lent work  for  developing  endurance  and  finishing 
power,  and  should  be  taken  about  twice  a  week.  The 
over  distance  work  for  a  quarter  miler  would  be 
660  or  880  yards ;  for  a  half  miler,  three-quarters 
or  a  mile. 

A  day's  work  in  mid-season  would  be  about  as 
follows :  Warm  up  by  running  up  and  down  the 
track  several  times.  If  the  runner  is  a  quarter 
miler,  he  should  run  through  300  yards  at  a  quar- 
ter mile  pace.  He  should  then  walk  around  and 
rest  for  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  When  rested  he 

37 


53814 


should  run  a  lap  at  slow  speed  and  then  go  to  the 
dressing  room.  For  his  next  day's  work  he  might 
run  the  full  distance,  followed  the  next  day  by  the 
over  distance,  and  the  next  the  over  distance.  Each 
day  he  should  warm  up  as  described  above — a  few 
sprints  and  some  starts  with  the  pistol  should  be 
taken  frequently.  It  is  well  to  take  a  light  work- 
out on  Friday  and  to  run  a  time  trial  for  the  full 
distance  on  Saturday.  In  case  the  runner  is  train- 
ing for  both  the  quarter  and  the  half  he  should 
work  primarily  over  the  longer  distances.  In  all 
of  the  training  runs  the  runner  should  finish  with 
a  sprint.  The  day's  work  should  cover  a  period 
of  about  an  hour.  It  is  a  mistake  to  rush  through 
the  training  work.  The  day's  work,  it  will  be 
noted,  begins  with  light  work  and  ends  with  light 
work.  The  heavier  training  comes  in  between. 

III.  FORM. 

The  stride  in  the  middle  distance  is  much  the 
same  as  the  sprinter's  stride  except  that  they  are 
much  more  relaxed  and  less  vigorous.  The  stride 
should  not  be  so  high  upon  the  toes.  The  leg  action 
in  middle  distance  running  may  be  expressed  as 
throwing  the  foot  well  forward  in  landing.  The 
arms  should  be  swung  from  the  shoulders  like  the 
arm  movement  in  sprint  running  except  that  the 
arms  and  body  should  be  more  relaxed  throughout 
the  first  part  of  the  race.  In  the  last  part  of  the 
race  when  the  final  effort  is  made,  all  of  the  arm 
drive  possible  is  necessary  to  assist  the  legs  which 
have  become  weakened  by  the  strain.  The  ten- 

38" 


dency  in  the  last  sprint  is  to  chop  the  stride.  It  is 
at  this  time  that  the  arms  should  be  used  with  the 
maximum  effort  to  maintain  the  full  stride  to  the 
finish.  Do  not  use  the  reaching-  and  pulling  move- 
ment of  the  arms,  but  drive  forward  as  in  sprinting. 
The  breathing  should  be  through  both  the  mouth 
and  the  nose.  The  head  should  be  carried  in  a 
natural  position,  otherwise  the  air  passage  will  be 
restricted.  The  inhalations  should  be  full  and 
deep,  for  the  more  air  which  can  be  taken  into  the 
lungs  the  better. 

IV.  RUNNING  THE  RACE. 

In  the  440,  because  it  is  very  important  that  the 
runner  get  a  good  position  at  the  first  turn,  when 
the  pistol  is  fired  the  contestant  should  sprint  for 
the  pole,  being  careful  to  avoid  fouling.  Do  not 
run  on  the  outside  on  the  turns  because  by  so  doing 
one  runs  farther  than  necessary.  If  the  runner 
gets  the  pole  and  does  not  want  the  pace  fast  he 
can  "float"  on  the  first  and  second  turns,  causing 
the  opponents  to  run  outside  to  pass.  If  he  does  not 
get  the  pole  and  the  pace  is  not  fast  enough,  he 
should  pass  on  the  back  stretch.  Care  should  be 
taken  so  as  not  to  lose  a  stride.  If  possible  get  into 
the  lead  before  coming  to  the  third  turn,  otherwise 
your  opponent  may  slow  down  so  as  to  make  you 
lose  a  stride  or  run  outside.  When  coming  into 
the  stretch  run  in  a  straight  line  to  the  finish. 

In  the  half  mile  it  is  usually  better  to  run  the 
first  quarter  a  trifle  faster  than  the  second  quarter, 

39 


but  the  pace  should  be  about  even.     Judgment  of 
pace  is  very  essential  in  the  half  mile  run. 

V.  COMMON  FAULTS. 

1.  Running  too  many  time  trials. 

2.  Misjudging   the   pace   and    either    running   the 
first  half  of  the  race  too  fast  or  too  slow. 

3.  Running  wide  on  the  turns. 

4.  Tensing  the  muscles  throughout  the  race. 

5.  Throwing  the  head    back    and    chopping    the 
stride  at  the  finish. 

VI.  SUGGESTIONS. 

Practice  sprinting  for  the  pole  and  do  not  let  it 
worry  you  if  you  are  jostled.  Learn  to  move  up 
through  a  pack  of  runners  without  going  outside. 

Work  the  arms  hard  on  a  finish.  When  finishing 
do  not  look  back.  Do  not  throw  the  head  back  and 
remember  not  to  shorten  the  stride. 

Middle  distance  runners  should  start  from  a 
crouch. 


40 


Illustration  1 

Illustration  i.  The  start  of  the  2-mile  relay  in 
the  1920  Pennsylvania  Relays  where  a  new  world's 
record  was  made.  Note  the  position  of  the  runners 
on  the  second  stride  after  the  pistol  was  fired.  Each 
man  is  endeavoring  to  get  into  full  stride  quickly 
so  that  he  may  get  a  favorable  position  at  the  first 
turn.  In  this  race  each  team  is  composed  of  four 
half  milers. 


41 


Illustration  2 

Illustration  2.  Shows  a  runner  finishing  a  half 
mile  race  in  good  form.  Note  the  position  of  the 
legs  and  arms. 


42 


THE  LONG  DISTANCE  RUNS 

I.  PRELIMINARY  TRAINING. 

Training  for  the  mile  and  two-mile  runs  should 
start  long  before  the  outdoor  training  season  be- 
gins ;  that  is,  the  preliminary  training  should  ex- 
tend over  a  long  period  of  time.  This  preliminary 
training,  however,  should  be  light  and  for  the  pur- 
pose of  developing  strength  and  endurance.  If  the 
athlete  loses  weight  and  gets  up  feeling  tired  in 
the  morning  he  should  lighten  his  work.  If  the 
man  in  question  is  to  participate  in  several  indoor 
meets,  then,  of  course,  he  will  train  much  as  he 
would  for  outdoor  meets.  The  following  prelim- 
inary training  suggestions  are  primarily  for  begin- 
ners, but  most  of  the  points  mentioned  will  also  be 
found  of  value  to  seasoned  runners  as  well. 

Cross-country  walking,  followed  by  cross-coun- 
try running,  is  invaluable  in  developing  heart,  lungs 
and  legs.  Most  beginners  are  too  anxious  to  get 
results  quickly,  and  they  walk  and  run  too  far.  The 
hikes  and  runs  should  be  short  at  first  and  then 
should  gradually  be  lengthened,  as  improvement  is 
noticed.  During  the  walks,  practice  deep  breathing, 
that  is,  take  a  full  breath,  inhaling  slowly,  hold  it 
for  a  few  seconds  and  then  exhale  slowly. 

General  all-around  calisthenics  likewise  are  bene- 
ficial. They  should  be  taken  each  morning  before 
the  morning  bath,  with  the  windows  up,  or  in  the 

43 


gymnasium  with  the  class.  Ten  or  fifteen  minutes 
of  these  will  suffice.  The  exercises  taken  should 
be  those  which  especially  affect  the  upper  body ; 
the  legs  will  get  plenty  of  exercise  in  actual  running 
practice. 

Basketball  is  one  of  the  best  games  for  distance 
runners.  -Most  boys  like  to  play  basketball,  and 
they  get  splendid  training  for  endurance  while  play- 
ing this  game. 

If  the  runner  has  a  gymnasium  to  train  in,  he, 
should  start  his  preliminary  training  in  January, 
following  the  suggestions  just  mentioned,  and,  be- 
sides, he  should  practice  starts  frequently.  Too 
much  starting  on  the  boards  will  produce  sore 
shins,  and  this  should  be  avoided.  A  splendid  rule 
to  follow,  right  from  the  start,  is  to  enter  some  kind 
of  competition  every  Saturday  afternoon.  At  the 
first  such  events  as  short  dashes  will  suffice.  Later 
the  distances  should  be  gradually  lengthened.  For 
variety,  sometimes  let  the  competition  consist  of 
participation  in  some  other  track  or  field  event.  The 
main  thing  is  to  get  into  the  habit  of  doing  one's 
best  every  Saturday  afternoon  in  competition.  The 
runner  should  never  run  himself  out  at  any  other 
time  during  the  week. 

II.  TRAINING  FOR  THE  SPRING  MEETS. 

About  two  months  before  the  main  competitions, 
the  regular  outdoor  training  should  commence.  For 
the  first  few  days  the  work  should  be  as  follows : 
Warm  up  by  running  up  and  down  the  track  a  few 
times  and  give  special  attention  to  the  correct  run- 

44 


ning  form.  Follow  this  by  running  from  one  to 
two  miles  with  an  easy  stride.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  set  too  fast  a  pace.  The  runner  should  not 
finish  exhausted.  The  work  in  training  for  dis- 
tance runs  should  be  so  regulated  that  strength  and 
condition  will  be  acquired  gradually.  After  the 
muscular  soreness  caused  by  the  first  few  days 
of  work  has  disappeared,  the  amount  and  kind  of 
work  may  be  slightly  increased.  At  this  time  sprint- 
ing may  be  added  and  also  easy  runs  of  from  3  to 
4  miles  may  be  taken  by  two-milers  and  from  2  to 
3  miles  by  milers. 

After  about  four  weeks  of  work  the  following  is 
suggested  as  an  average  week's  schedule  for  a  miler. 
The  two  miler  should  run  about  twice  as  far  as  the 
miler  in  training,  but  the  pace  should  be  commen- 
surate with  the  distance  covered. 

Monday :  Warm  up  by  running  up  and  down  the 
track  for  a  few  minutes  and  then  take  a  slo\v  mile. 
For  instance,  a  man  who  can  run  a  mile  in  about 
4:40  should  run  the  distance  in  about  5:10.  Follow 
this  by  walking  around  the  track  until  rested  and 
then  take  two  or  three  runs  of  one  hundred  yards 
in  length  at  fairly  good  speed. 

Tuesday :  Warm  up  as  on  Monday  and  then  run 
three-quarters  of  a  mile  at  a  mile  pace.  It  is  .a 
good  plan  to  time  the  runner  in  this  work  and  to 
test  his  judgment  of  pace  at  the  finish  by  question- 
ing him  regarding  his  idea  of  the  time  made  in  the 
run.  He  should  be  able  to  judge  his  pace  within 

45 


two  or  three  seconds.     Finish    the    day's   work   the 
same  as  on  Monday. 

Wednesday :  After  warming  up  as  on  "the  pre- 
ceding days,  run  a  mile  at  a  fairly  good  pace.  A 
4:40  man  should  run  it  in  about  4:55.  Finish  up 
the  work  as  before. 

Thursday:  Warm  up  and  then  run  two  half 
miles  in  about  2  :2o  or  2 125  each.  A  good  rest  should 
be  taken  between  runs.  Finish  as  on  the  other 
days. 

Friday:  Warm  up  and  then  take  a  few  sprint- 
ing starts  and  then  some  light  running  around  the 
track. 

Saturday:  Run  a  trial.  Warm  up  as  before  a 
race. 

III.  RUNNING  THE  RACE. 

The  legs  should  be  lifted  well  out  in  front  and 
the  foot  should  land  without  chopping  the  stride. 
Run  well  on  the  toes  and  in  training  exaggerate 
the  springing  on  the  toes,  but,  of  course,  do  not 
overdo  this  in  a  race.  If  unable  to  keep  upon  the 
toes  and  if  the  weight  comes  down  on  the  heel  the 
runner  should  persevere  in  his  efforts  to  run  on 
his  toes  for  eventually  the  calves  will  become  strong 
enough  to  bear  the  weight.  Usually,  the  longer  the 
race,  the  shorter  the  stride.  Strive  to  acquire  the 
proper  stride  in  practice,  so  that  it  will  be  natural 
to  run  that  way  in  the  race. 

The  body  should  be  held  slightly  forward.  Do 
not  lower  the  head,  as  it  obstructs  the  breathing. 

46 


The  arms  should  not  be  held  too  high,  nor  should 
the  muscles  of  the  arms  be  contracted,  as  in  sprint- 
ing. Do  not  swing  the  arms  back  of  the  legs,  nor 
far  enough  in  front  to  cause  the  runner  to  wobble. 

IV.  PACE. 

Judgment  of  pace  is  essential  in  distance  runners. 
Men  should  know  how  fast  they  can  run  each  quar- 
ter to  get  the  best  results.  It  has  been  proven  that 
better  time  can  be  made  by  running  a  good  fast 
pace  all  the  way,  rather  than  by  running  the  first 
half  very  fast  and  the  last  half  necessarily  slower, 
or  by  running  the  first  half  slowly  and  the  second 
half  at  top  speed. 

A  4 140  man  should  run  his  quarters  somewhat  as 
follows  :  First  quarter,  68 ;  second,  75  ;  third,  69 ; 
and  fourth,  68.  A  ten  minute  man  in  the  two  mile 
should  run  his  halves  about  as  follows :  First  half, 
2 :3<D ;  second,  2 :35  ;  third,  2 130 ;  and  fourth,  in  2 125. 
When  the  record  was  established  for  the  mile  in 
the  Western  Conference  the  quarters  were  as  fol- 
lows :  First  quarter,  62  seconds ;  first  half,  2  min- 
utes 8  seconds;  three  quarters,  3  minutes  13  sec- 
onds; mile,  4  minutes  15  2-5  seconds. 

The  finish  is  important  in  distance  running.  A 
runner  must  know  his  sprinting  ability,  and  know 
when  to  start  his  sprint  for  the  tape.  The  average 
distance  is  120  yards,  though  some  men  can  sprint 
as  far  as  220  yards.  One  thing  to  keep  in  mind 

is  that  a  man  should  never  make  two  sprints. 

47 


V.  GENERALSHIP. 

In  planning  a  distance  race,  for  instance  a  mile, 
it  is  always  advisable  to  follow  pace,  providing  the 
opponent  sets  it  properly  and  assuming  that  the 
runner  has  a  good  sprint,  for  it  is  harder  to  run 
the  race  in  front  than  just  behind.  These  things, 
however  should  be  kept  in  mind :  First,  do  not  fol- 
low a  man  who  has  a  poor  stride;  second,  if  possi- 
ble, two  teammates  should  run  together ;  third,  do 
not  get  into  the  second  division  of  the  field. 

When  to  set  pace:  i.  If  opponent  has  a  good 
sprint  and  your  man  does  not. 

2.  If  pace  is  not  fast  enough  to  enable  your  man 
to  run  his  distance. 

3.  When  your  man  has  a  sprint,  but  finds  the 
pace  too  fast  for  him,  he  should  go  out  in  front  and 
set  the  pace  with  the  idea  of  slowing  it  down. 

How  to  pass  opponent  in  sprint  home.  Go  by 
him  fast,  for  two  reasons:  first,  because  this  keeps 
your  opponent  from  knowing  that  you  are  going 
by  him,  and  consequently  he  will  not  be  able  to  pre- 
vent you  from  taking  the  pole ;  second,  that,  by 
doing  so,  you  may  discourage  the  other  man,  who 
thinks  you  are  fresh  when  he  is  tired. 

VI.  COMMON  FAULTS. 

1.  Running  flat-footed. 

2.  Not  making  the  proper  use  of  the  arms. 

3.  Running  the  first  part  of  the  race  too  fast. 

4.  Starting  the  sprint  too  soon. 

48 


5.  Looking  back. 

6.  Running  outside  on  the  turns. 


Illustration  1 

Illustration  I.  Shows  long  distance  runner  in  full 
stride.  The  body  is  leaned  slightly  forward,  the 
head  is  in  a  natural  position  and  the  arms  are  swung 
from  the  shoulder- joint  forward  and  back  with  the 

49 


elbow  slightly  bent.  Note  that  the  arm  swing  is 
only  slightly  across  the  body  so  that  the  hands  come 
to  about  the  same  point  in  front  of  the  body.  Also 
note  that  the  toe  of  the  foot  is  pointed  out  straight 
ahead  and  is  fully  extended  at  the  time  of  landing. 
It  is  apparent  that  the  runner's  muscles  are  fully 
relaxed. 


RELAY  RACING 

I.  DISTANCE. 

The  most  common  relays  are  as  follows : 

1.  One-half  mile  relay — each  man  runs  220  yards. 

2.  One  mile  relay — each  man  runs  440  yards; 

3.  Two  mile  relay — each  man  runs  one-half  mile. 

4.  Four  mile  relay — each  man  runs  one  mile. 

5.  Sprint  medley — first  man  runs  runs  220  yards, 
the  second,  220  yards,  the  third  440  yards,  and  the 
fourth  880  yards. 

6.  Distance  medley — first  man  runs  440  yards, 
the  second,  half  mile,  the  third,  three-quarters,  and 
the  fourth,  one  mile. 

7.  Shuttle  relay — each  man    runs    one    hundred 
yards  back  and  forth — that  is,  two  men  of  each 
team  are  stationed  at  each  end  of  the  one  hundred 
yard  course,  number  one  and  three  at  one  end,  and 
two  and  four  at  the  other.     Number  one  runs  100 
yards  and  passes  the  baton  to  number  two  who  in 
turn  passes  to  three.     Three  passes  to  four  and  he 
finishes. 

II.  How  TO  PLACE  MEN  IN  RELAYS. 

The  usual  plan  is  to  run  the  second  best  man 
first  or  third,  the  poorest  man  second  and  the  best 
man  last.  This  will  vary  under  the  following  con- 
ditions : 

51 


1.  In  the  mile  relay  there  is  a  big  advantage  in 
getting  the  pole,  consequently  it  pays   to   start  a 
good  man.    Further,  the  man  who  starts  should  be 
strong  and  not  easily  tripped  or  he  will  lose  out  in 
the  fight  for  the  pole  on  the  first  turn. 

2.  It  makes  a  good  deal  of  difference   to   some 
men  whether  they  are  running  in  front  or  behind. 
For  the  man  who  cannot  run  well  when  behind, 
either  because  he  does  not  judge  pace  well  or  be- 
cause he  gets  faint  hearted  when  touched  off  be- 
hind, place  him  so  that  he  gets  away  with  either  an 
even  start,  or  if  possible  with  better  than  an  even 
start.     Some  men  do  not  do  their  best  when  out 
in   front  all  alone.     These  men   should  be  placed 
where  they  are  sure  to  have  to  run  their  best  to 
win. 

3.  If  a  man  gets  too  nervous  waiting  for  the 
stick  it  may  be  well  to  start  him  first. 

4.  Figure  on  what  the  opponents  will  do  in  the 
relays,  and  then  decide  whether  you  can  run  them 
off  their  feet  by  starting  your  good  men  first.  This 
sometimes  will  work  in  distance  relays  because  in- 
experienced men  will  often  run  themselves  out  in 
the  first  part  of  their  distance  in  trying  to  make  up 
ground  lost  by  teammates. 

III.  PASSING  THE  BATON. 

The  baton  is  about  one  foot  long  and  one  inch 
in  diameter  and  it  is  passed  in  a  sixty-foot  zone. 
Thirty  feet  of  this  touch-off  zone  is  on  each  side 
of  the  finish  line.  As  a  rule  the  men  line  up  on  the 

52 


back  line  to  start  their  run  and  the  stick  is  received 
at  about  the  middle  line.  This  gives  the  rest  of  the 
distance  to  make  sure  of  the  pass  or  to  get  the  baton 
in  case  of  a  miss.  Since  relay  racing  is  intended 
as  a  test  of  running  ability,  and  not  of  ability  to 
carry  or  pass  the  baton,  the  rules  committee  fa- 
vored anything  that  would  lessen  the  chances  of  a 
team  being  disqualified  for  dropping  the  baton. 
However,  since  the  rules  require  that  a  baton  be 
carried,  a  great  deal  of  attention  should  be  given 
to  the  exchange.  Many  teams  lose  a  great  deal  of 
time  in  making  the  exchange. 

Some  points  to  consider  in  passing  the  baton  are 
as  follows: 

1.  Practice  having  the  starter  judge  correctly 
the  speed  of  the  runner.    The  pass  should  be  timed 
so  that  the  man  can  barely  reach  the  baton. 

2.  Take  the  baton  in  the  right  hand  from  the 
previous  man,  and  as  soon  as  the  stick  is  received 
change  it  into  the  other  hand. 

3.  When  reaching  back  for  the  baton  reach  with 
the  back  of  the  hand  toward  the  ground. 

4.  The  runner  should  pass  the  stick  with  his  left 
hand. 

5.  The  chief  responsibility  of  making    a    good 
pass  is  on  the  man  who  delivers  the  baton. 

IV.  RECEIVING  THE  RELAY  BATON. 

As  the  runner  approaches,  the  man  who  is  to  re- 
ceive the  baton  should  start  his  run  slowly  and 
should  be  careful  to  time  his  speed  with  that  of  the 

53 


runner.  If  the  man  who  touches  him  off  has  a 
strong  finish  he  can  plan  to  get  the  baton  on  the 
far  side  of  the  middle  line.  If  the  approaching  run- 
ner shows  signs  of  tiring  rapidly  the  man  who  is 
waiting  should  be  careful,  and  not  start  too  fast. 
One  common  fault  of  men  receiving  the  baton  is 
that  they  do  not  run  a  straight  course  while  the  ex- 
change is  being  made,  and  consequently  they  fre- 
quently either  cause  their  teammates  to  bump  into 
them  or  they  run  into  their  opponents.  The  rea- 
son why  such  men  do  not  run  on  a  straight  line  is 
that  running  while  looking  backward  has  a  tendency 
to  make  them  run  on  a  curve. 

The  last  runner  down  the  home  stretch  finishes 
just  as  in  the  quarter.  The  other  man  must  plan 
on  the  station  occupied  by  their  teammates  in  the 
terms  of  the  exchange.  For  instance,  a  team  draws 
the  fourth  lane  from  the  pole.  This  means  that 
each  succeeding  runner  must  receive  the  baton  in 
that  lane.  He  cannot  cross  in  and  take  the  pole 
even  if  his  team  is  in  the  lead.  Such  being  the  case 
some  men  plan  to  have  the  runner  run  through  the 
men  occupying  lanes  one  and  two  and  thus  pass  the 
baton  to  the  next  man  in  front  of  the  middle  line 
and  near  the  pole.  This,  of  course,  does  away  with 
the  necessity  of  the  first  runner  leaving  the  pole. 
This,  however,  is  wrong  because  it  violates  the  spirit 
of  the  rule,  and  besides  it  is  hard  to  run  through 
the  line  in  this  way  without  causing  a  spill. 

Try  out  your  men  in  short  distances  and  see  in 
what  order  they  run  best.  Give  men  plenty  of  prac- 

54 


tice  in  closing  up  the  gap,  especially  in  distance  run- 
ning. The  rule  in  this  is  for  the  man  to  gradually 
go  after  the  competitor,  and  not  to  try  to  overtake 
him  too  soon. 

In  shuttle  relays  it  is  better  to  have  the  men 
touch  off  rather  than  to  pass  the  baton  although  this 
requires  good  officiating  to  see  that  men  do  not 
start  before  they  are  touched.  In  this  race  the  men 
being  touched  gain  a  little  by  being  in  motion  when 
touched.  Of  course,  they  must  be  behind  the  line 
at  the  time  of  being  touched.  If  the  half-mile  re- 
lay is  run  in  lanes,  be  sure  to  caution  your  men  to 
run  close  to  the  inside  line.  The  first  and  second 
lanes  are  the  best,  preferably  the  second,  because 
the  man  who  has  the  pole  is  forced  to  run  out  from 
the  curb  while  the  man  in  second  lane  can  run  al- 
most on  the  line.  There  is  an  advantage  in  having 
the  field  in  front. 


55 


Illustration  1 

Illustration  i  shows  the  method  of  passing  the  ba- 
ton. The  man  receiving  the  baton  is  well  in  his 
stride  and  the  man  who  is  passing  it  is  just  able 
to  reach  the  other  which  makes  the  fastest  possi- 
ble exchange.  Note  that  the  receiver  is  reaching 
back  with  the  palm  of  his  right  hand  upward,  and 
that  he  is  watching  the  stick  pass  into  his  hand.  The 
incoming  runner  is  handing  the  other  the  baton  with 
his  left  hand.  He  will  keep  a  straight  course  as 
he  finishes  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  the  other  con- 
testants. The  men  receiving  the  batons  have  a 
tendency  to  veer  to  the  right  of  their  course.  This 
should  be  avoided. 

56 


THE  HIGH  HURDLES 

I.  HIGH  HURDLES. 

1.  Regulations.  The  standard  distance  in  an  out- 
door   high    hurdle    race    is     120    yards.     In    this 
race    there    are    ten    hurdles    set    as    follows:     15 
yards  from  the  start  to  the  first  hurdle,  ten  yards 
between  the  hurdles;  and  15  yards  from    the    last 
hurdle    to    the     finish     line.       In     indoor     meets 
the  distance  is  usually  as  long  as  the  building  will 
permit.      In    indoor    races,  the    start    to    the    first 
hurdle    is    always     15    yards,    and    the    distance 
between  hurdles  is  always  10  yards.     The  distance 
from  the  last  hurdle  to  the  finish  line  varies.     For 
instance,  in  a  5o-yard  race  there  would  be  15  yards 
to  the  first  hurdle,  and  10  yards  between  hurdles. 
There  would  be  four  flights  of  hurdles  but  the  dis- 
tance from  the  last  hurdle  to  the  finish  would  be  5 
yards.     In  a  75-yard  high  hurdle  race  there  would 
be  6  flights  of  hurdles  and  10  yards  to  the  finish. 
The  regulation  hurdle  is  3^2  feet  high,  the  bases  are 
not  less  than  20  inches  broad,  the  top    bar   has    a 
length  of  42  inches  and  a  width  of  at  least  3  inches 
and  is  painted  white.    The  minimum  weight  is  ap- 
proximately 18  pounds.     The  hurdles  are  adjust- 
able so  that  they  may  also  be  used  for  low  hurdle 
races. 

2.  Qualifications,   (a)   Tall,  rangy    men    usually 
make  the  best  hurdlers. 

57 


(b)  A  high  hurdler  should  have  a   fairly   long 
stride  and  a  fair  amount  of  speed. 

(c)  His  body  and  leg  muscles  should  be  supple 
and  pliant.     A  good  test  for  suppleness  is  as  fol- 
lows :     Stand  erect  and  bend  forward  with  knees 
straight  until   the   hands   touch   the    floor.     Next, 
raise  one  leg  in  front  of  the  body  and  then  the  other 
to  the  side  in  the  same  manner  that  the  legs  are 
used  in  hurdling.     Many  men  who    try    for    the 
sprints  but  find  that  they  are  not  quite  fast  enough 
for  the  dashes  later  try  out  for  the  hurdles  and  are 
successful. 

3.  The  Stride.  The  majority  of  hurdlers  take 
eight  strides  to  the  first  hurdle.  It  may  be  neces- 
sary to  start  with  a  different  foot  in  front  from 
the  one  you  are  used  to  starting  with,  but  it  is  bet- 
ter to  change  feet  in  most  cases  rather  than  to  take 
either  seven  or  nine  strides.  Sometimes  it  pays 
to  vary  this  rule  but  not  often.  Anyway  it  is  well 
to  practice  with  either  foot  in  front,  because  it  may 
be  necessary  to  change  feet  in  the  starting  position 
if  a  hurdler  gets  set  back  for  a  false  start.  Other- 
wise the  start  is  the  same  as  in  the  sprints. 

•  All  hurdlers  take  three  strides  in  between  the 
hurdles.  It  never  pays  to  take  five.  The  average 
distance  in  jumping  the  hurdle  is  seven  feet  before 
reaching  it,  and  about  five  feet  on  the  other  side.  In 
order  to  leave  the  ground  this  far  back  the  hurdler 
must  have  speed  enough  to  carry  him  over.  For 
that  reason  it  never  pays  to  run  up  to  a  hurdle  in 
a  half-hearted  manner.  The  best  hurdlers  take 

58 


oft"  about  8  feet  from  the  hurdle,  and  land  about  4 
feet  iu  front. 

4.  The  form  over  the  hurdle.  As  the  take-off  foot 
hits  the  ground  on  the  last  step  before  the  hurdle, 
the  front  leg  is  thrown  forward  and  straight  ahead 
of  the  body.  As  it  clears  the  hurdle  the  back  of  the 
heel  is  downward.  The  take-off  foot  follows  and 
the  knee  is  turned  to  the  side  with  the  heel  held 
close  behind.  Simultaneous  with  the  raising  of  the 
front  leg,  the  shoulders  and  upper  trunk  are  dipped 
forward.  The  arm  which  is  on  the  same  side  as 
the  back  leg  is  thrown  forward  with  the  dip  of  the 
body.  The  other  arm  swings  back  similar  to  the 
arm  motion  in  a  sprinting  stride.  As  the  hurdler 
crosses  the  top  of  the  hurdle  the  front  leg  is  snap- 
ped straight  down,  and  the  back  leg  is  jerked  for- 
ward, throwing  the  foot  ahead  in  position  for  the 
first  stride.  Care  should  be  exercised  to  keep  the 
body  turned  straight  to  the  front.  Special  effort 
should  be  taken  to  make  the  first  stride  after  clear- 
ing the  hurdle  a  long  one  since  the  tendency  is  to 
land  on  both  feet  at  the  same  time ;  this  results  in 
a  loss  of  distance  and  makes  it  difficult  for  the 
hurdler  to  reach  the  next  hurdle  in  three  strides. 
The  hurdler  should  strive  to  clear  the  hurdle  as 
closely  as  possible  without  knocking  it  over.  A  very 
good  practice  consists  of  trying  to  knock  a  stick, 
which  has  been  placed  on  the  top  of  the  hurdle, 
off  with  the  seat.  In  clearing  a  high  hurdle  the 
head  should  not  be  raised  higher  from  the  ground 
than  in  running.  By  standing  a  few  feet  to  the 

59 


side  the  coach  may  detect  whether  the  hurdler  is 
taking  the  hurdle  too  high. 

5.  Training  and  Practice,  Beginners  should  prac- 
tice over  one  low  hurdle.  When  they  have  made 
satisfactory  progress  in  stride  and  form,  they  should 
try  two  and  then  three  hurdles,  set  at  the  regula- 
tion distance  apart.  Sometimes  early  in  the  season, 
if  track  and  weather  conditions  are  adverse,  it  is 
well  to  shorten  the  distance.  After  form  and  stride 
are  acquired,  several  hurdles  should  be  used  but  it 
is  not  advisable  to  run  over  the  full  flight  very 
often.  Always  start  the  regulation  15  yards  from 
the  first  hurdle  and  practice  frequently  the  1 5-yard 
sprint  to  the  finish  line.  In  practicing  for  form 
over  the  hurdle  approach  it  with  an  easy  pace,  take 
the  hurdle  with  regular  form,  then  proceed  to  the 
next  hurdle  with  five  quick  strides.  Follow  this 
procedure  until  several  barriers  have  been  hur- 
dled. This  practice  is  only  to  be  followed  when 
warming  up  or  when  working  for  form  and  should 
never  be  used  in  racing. 

Hurdle  races  are  won  in  the  last  three  hurdles, 
so  learn  to  keep  your  form  and  speed,  and  do  not 
let  a  competitor  run  you  off  your  stride.  Keep  your 
mind  on  your  own  race  and  do  not  watch  your  op- 
ponent. Remember  you  will  be  disqualified  if  you 
knock  down  more  than  two  hurdles,  and  besides 
you  are  apt  to  trip  if  you  do  not  clear  the  bar  in 
a  clean-cut  manner. 

The  following  is  suggested  as  an  average  day's 
schedule  of  work  for  a  man  training  for  the  high 

60 


hurdles.  First,  warm  up  by  trotting  up  and  down 
the  track.  In  this  work  get  well  up  on  the  toes  and 
lift  the  knees  high,  using  a  springing  stride.  Next 
go  over  several  hurdles,  using  a  short  stride,  and 
practice  form.  Then  take  about  three  heats  going 
over  from  4  to  /  hurdles  in  each  heat.  Practice 
starting  with  the  pistol.  If  there  are  several  hur- 
dlers they  should  practice  running  together.  Finish 
up  the  track  work  by  running  from  150  to  300  yards 
at  a  brisk  pace.  The  distance  will  depend  upon  the 
individual  differences  in  conditions.  It  is  well  to 
devote  a  few  minutes  to  the  special  exercises  for 
suppleness  and  agility. 

Do  not  hurdle  for  two  days  before  a  race.     It  is 
well  to  practice  sprinting  instead. 

6.  Common  Faults. 

(a)  Failing  to  acquire  the  proper  stride. 

(b)  Taking  off  too  close  to  the  hurdle. 

(c)  Turning  the  front  foot  to  the  side  as  it  clears 
the  h*9dle. 

(d)  Sailing  over  the  hurdle  and  trailing  the  rear 
leg. 

(e)  Failure  to  turn  the  rear  foot  to  the  side. 

(f)  Failure  to  dip  the  body  forward. 

(g)  Turning  the  body  to  the  side  as  the    hurdler 
goes  over. 

(h)    Holding  the  anus  straight  out  to  the  side. 


61 


Illustration  1 

Illustration  i.  Shows  the  stride  to  the  hurdle. 
The  right  foot  is  pointed  straight  ahead,  the  chest 
is  bent  forward  so  that  it  almost  touches  the  knee. 
The  head  will  not  be  any  farther  from  the  ground 
when  the  hurdle  is  being  cleared  than  in  a  running 
stride.  Note  that  the  left  arm  moves  forward  with 
the  right  foot.  The  take-off  has  been  made  about 
7  feet  from  the  hurdle. 


62 


Illustration  2 

Illustration  2,.  The  body  is  still  leaning  forward. 
The  right  leg  is  just  beginning  its  downward  snap. 
The  left  leg  is  turned  well  to  the  side,  and  the 
left  toe  is  pointed  outward.  The  left  foot  and  leg 
are  just  being  snapped  forward.  The  left  arm  is 
coming  back  and  the  right  arm  is  going  ahead. 


Illustration  3 


Illustration  3.  The  snap  down  of  the  right  leg 
and  the  forward  throw  of  the  left  leg  are  just  being 
made  which,  if  properly  done,  will  bring  the  hur- 
dler's right  foot  to  the  ground  about  three  to  three 
and  a  half  feet  from  the  hurdle. 


64 


;. 


Illustration  4 

Illustration  4.  This  shows  the  hurdler  making 
the  first  stride  between  hurdles.  Note  position  of 
the  arms  with  relation  to  the  legs.  An  effort  should 
be  made  to  make  this  stride  as  long  as  possible.  Note 
that  the  body  throughout  the  stride  over  the  hurdle 
as  well  as  in  the  strides  between  the  hurdles  is  held 
straight  to  the  front. 


THE  LOW  HURDLES 

1.  Regulations.  The  standard  distance  in  an  out- 
door low  hurdle  race  is  220  yards.   "  In  this  race 
there  are  ten  hurdles,  2,^/2  feet  high  set  as  follows : 
20  yards  to  the  first  hurdle,  20  yards  between  each 
and    20  yards  to  the  finish.     The  low  hurdle  dis- 
tance indoors  is  not  .uniform.     Sometimes  the  low 
hurdles  are  used  on  indoor  tracks  with  high  hurdle 
intervals.     The  same  rules  apply  both  to  high  and 
low  hurdle  racing. 

2.  Qualifications.     The  same  qualifications    re- 
quired of  a  high  hurdler  are  likewise  desired  for 
a  low  hurdler  with  these  points  in  addition,  namely : 
that  a  man  must  possess,  a  great  amount  of  speed 
and  stamina  to  run  a  full  flight  of  low  hurdles. 

3.  Stride.    The  standard  number  of  steps  taken 
tb  the  first  hurdle  is  ten,  and  seven  steps  are  taken 
in  between.     If  a  man  rises  from  his  left  foot  he 
should  take  his  position  for  a  start  with  his  left 
foot   in   front.     That  is,  the  first  step  should  be 
with  the  right  foot.     In  counting  the  steps  in  be- 
tween hurdles   the   jump   over  the   hurdle   is   not 
counted.     When  a  hurdler  takes  seven  strides  be- 
tween  hurdles   he   takes   off   from  the   same   foot 
each  time.     An   exceptionally   long  and   powerful 
stride  is  required  to  run  the  hurdles  in  seven  strides 
over  the  full  distance.     The  proper  use  of  the  arm 
swing  as  described  under  sprint  running  will  be  a 

66 


valuable  aid  to  a  low  hurdler  in  increasing  his 
stride,  especially  between  the  last  three  or  four  hur- 
dles when  he  begins  to  tire.  If  a  man  has  only  an 
average  stride  he  should  take  eight  strides  between 
hurdles.  This  necessitates  hurdling  off  of  first  one 
foot  and  then  the  other.  At  first,  hurdlers  find  that 
it  is  awkward  to  take  the  hurdle  with  the  wrong 
foot,  but  by  persistent  effort  this  may  be  overcome, 
and  in  the  course  of  a  season's  practice  a  hurdler 
should  be  able  to  take  the  hurdle  with  one  foot  as 
well  as  another.  All  low  hurdlers  should  spend 
some  time  in  practicing  how  to  take  off  with  the 
wrong  foot  because  in  a  race  they  may  be  thrown 
out  of  their  stride  and  thus  not  be  able  to  cover 
the  distance  between  hurdles  with  the  usual  number 
of  steps.  Young  or  immature  hurdlers  may  be 
obliged  to  use  eleven  steps  to  the  first  hurdle  and 
nine  steps  between  the  barriers,  but  this  should  be 
changed  as  early  as  possible  in  their  athletic  career. 
4.  The  Form.  The  general  principles  of  form  in 
taking  the  low  hurdles  are  the  same  as  in  the  high 
hurdles  with  these  differences:  It  is  not  neces- 
sary to  dip  the  body  forward  a  great  deal  or  to 
raise  the  back  leg  so  high.  The  best  hurdlers  take 
off  about  seven  feet  in  front  of  the  hurdle  and  land 
about  three  feet  on  the  other  side.  In  case  a  hur- 
dler has  difficulty  in  using  seven  steps  between  hur- 
dles he  should  take  a  longer  stride  over  the  hurdle. 
The  heels  of  the  take-off  foot  hits  the  ground  before 
the  spring  over  the  hurdle  is  taken,  but  on  landing, 
the  weight  of  the  body  should  be  on  the  ball  of  the 

67 


foot  and  the  heel  should  not  touch  the  ground  with 
any  force. 

5.  Training  and  Practice.     The  practice  for  the 
low  hurdler  should  be  about  the  same  as  outlined 
for  the  men  training  to  run  the  high  hurdles,  with 
the  exception  that  he  should  train  over  longer  dis- 
tances, using  about  three  to  seven  hurdles  for  prac- 
tice and  running  over  the  full  flight  once  a  week. 
His  runs  for  conditioning  should  be  from  220  yards 
to  440  yards.     In  case  a  man  is  working  for  both 
high  and  low  hurdles  he  should  divide  his  work 
equally  between  the  two. 

6.  Common  Faults. 

(a)  Chopping  the  stride. 

(b)  Sailing  too  high  over  the  hurdle. 

(c)  Watching  opponents. 

(e)  Running  the  first  half  of  the  race  too  fast. 

(f)  Turning  the  front  foot  to  the  side  as  it  clears 
the  hurdle. 


Illustration   1 

Illustration  I.  The  above  illustration  shows  the 
low  hurdler  midway  in  his  stride  over  the  hurdle. 
His  form  is  very  similar  to  that  used  in  the  high 
hurdle,  but  with  the  exception  that  his  body  is  not 
bent  forward  quite  so  much  and  his  trailing  leg  is 
not  turned  so  much  to  the  side. 


69 


HIGH  JUMP 

In  most  all  track  and  field  events  there  is  a  rec- 
ognized standard  form,  but  in  the  high  jump  there 
are  great  variations  of  form.  If  one  were  to  watch 
a  big  meet  he  would  probably  see  a  number  of  dif- 
ferent styles  of  jumping  and  likely  would  conclude 
that  there  was  no  standard  form  in  jumping.  The 
so-called  scissprs,  style  of  jumping  with  the  back  to 
the  bar  or  setting  up  is  the  easiest  to  acquire  but 
should  be  discouraged  because  very  few  ever  have 
done  well  with  this  form.  However,  there  are  two 
forms  of  high  jumping  more  commonly  used  than 
the  others,  and  these  are  undoubtedly  the  best  be- 
cause in  these  styles  of  jumping  the  body  is  raised 
as  little  as  possible  from  the  ground  and  the  lever- 
age of  arms,  body  and  legs  is  used  to  the  best  ad- 
vantage. 

To  distinguish  between  the  two  forms,  the  author 
calls  one  the  Eastern  form  and  the  other  the  West- 
ern, for  the  first  has  been  more  prevalent  in  the 
East  and  the  second  in  the  West. 

II.  THE  EASTERN  STYLE. 

If  the  jumper  takes  off  from  his  left  foot,  measure 
back  from  23  to  27  feet  from  the  standard  which 
Avill  be  on  his  right  as  he  approaches  the  bar.  This 
distance  will  vary  with  the  stride  of  the  individual 
jumper.  The  start  is  made  from  12  to  15  feet  back 
of  the  mark  which  has  been  determined  as  just  out- 

70 


lined.  The  jumper  should  approach  this  mark  and 
step  on  it  with  his  jumping  foot  (in  this  case  his 
left  foot)  ;  four  long  springy  strides  should  carrry 
him  from  this  mark  to  the  take  off  which  should  be 
3  to  4  feet  from  the  bar.  The  jumper  should  swing 
around  so  as  to  bring  his  right  side  next  to  the  bar. 
The  speed  should  be  increased  in  the  last  two  steps 
and  he  should  settle  down  on  the  last  step  for  the 
spring.  As  the  jumping  foot  lands  on  the  take-off 
mark,  swing  the  right  leg  up  diagonally  across  the 
bar.  As  the  leg  swings  up  the  body  inclines  back- 
ward. Simultaneously  with  the  swing  of  the  right 
leg  the  left  arm  is  thrown  forward  and  upward.  As 
the  body  rises  in  the  air  the  head  and  shoulders  are 
thrown  sideward  and  downward.  This  throws  the 
hips  up  and  ahead  of  the  body.  The  position  of  the 
jumper  is  now  with  his  left  side  to  the  bar,  at  the 
moment  of  crossing.  From  this  position  the  jump- 
ing leg  is  cut  sharply  backward  and  downward. 
This  turns  the  jumper  so  that  he  lands  on  the  jump- 
ing foot  facing  the  bar.  The  left  arm  which  is 
thrown  up  with  the  swing  of  the  right  leg  is  thrown 
downward  as  the  hips  are  thrown  upward,  and  is 
then  again  raised  enough  to  clear  the  bar. 


71 


Pit 


Take-off 


Western  ? 
Form.    / 


Eastern 
Form. 


I 

Check* 

&  j* 

V  * 

High  Jump. 


72 


III.  THE  WESTERN  FORM. 

Use  the  same  distance  as  in  the  Eastern  form,  but 
in  this  style  of  jumping,  if  the  jumper  takes  off  from 
the  left  foot  he  should  start  from  the  left  side  at 
about  a  45  degree  angle  from  the  bar.  As  the  left 
foot  strikes  the  ground  at  the  take  off  mark,  lean 
the  body  back  and  swing  the  right  foot  (which  is 
the  foot  farthest  from  the  bar)  upward  so  that  the 
body  will  be  parallel  to  the  bar,  with  the  bar  under 
the  left  arm  pit.  As  the  body  crosses  the  bar  a  for- 
ward roll  is  made  by  turning  the  body  face  down- 
ward landing  on  the  same  foot  the  jump  is  made 
from,  with  the  bar  on  the  left  side.  Some  jumpers 
using  this  style  roll  over  the  bar  landing  on  the 
right  foot  when  jumping  from  the  left. 

Care  should  be  exercised  so  that  the  head  and 
shoulders  are  not  being  thrown  over  too  soon,  giving 
the  jump  the  form  of  a  dive  which  is  not  permitted 
by  the  rules. 

IV.  TRAINING  AND  PRACTICE 

Beginners  should  always  work  at  a  height  which 
they  can  easily  clear,  for  two  reasons,  one  being 
that  if  the  jumper  thinks  of  clearing  the  height, 
rather  than  his  form,  he  will  not  perfect  his  form, 
and  the  other  is  that  continual  straining  of  the  jump- 
ing leg  is  harmful. 

Jumpers  should  take  other  exercises  along  with 
their  training.  Such  work  as  sprinting,  hurdling 
and  javelin  throwing  are  excellent. 

V.  COMMON  FAULTS 

i.  Running  too  hard  at  the  bar. 

73 


2.  Failure  to  get  an  even  stride. 

3.  Rising  too  far  from  the  bar  or  too  close.     Sug- 
gestion :  watch  from  the  side  and  see  if  the  body 
is  at  the  greatest  height  as  it  crosses  the  bar. 

4.  Sitting  up  over  the  bar  instead  of  getting  a  lay 
out. 

5.  Failing  to  get  the  turn  which  will  bring  the  back 
to  the  bar  at  the  moment  of  landing. 

6.  Keeping  the  body  rigid  instead  of  relaxed. 

"WESTERN  FORM" 


Illustration  1 


Illustration  i.  Shows  the  jumper  taking  oft"  from 
the  left  foot  in  the  Western  Form.  Note  that  he 
is  approaching  from  the  left  side  of  the  bar,  while 
in  the  Eastern  Form  he  approaches  from  the  right. 
Note  also  that  the  take  oft  foot  is  nearest  to  the  bar 
while  in  the  other  form  the  take  off  foot  is  farthest 
away  from  the  bar.  As  the  jumper  makes  the  spring 
from  the  ground,  the  right  leg  and  left  arm  are 
swung  up  at  the  same  time. 


75 


Illustration  2 

Illustration  2.  Shows  the  jumper  midway  in  his 
rise  to  the  bar.  He  is  just  ready  to  kick  the  right 
foot  out  to  "the  right  and  over  the  bar.  The  right 
leg  and  left  arm  are  the  parts  of  the  body  first  over 
the  bar.  The  left  leg  will  immediately  follow  the 
right.  When  these  motions  are  completed  the 
jumper  will  be  lying  on  his  left  side  over  the  bar 
and  facing  away  from  the  direction  of  his  approach. 
At  this  point  the  forward  roll  over  the  bar  begins. 


76 


Illustration  3 


Illustration  3.  Shows  the  jumper  just  clearing 
the  bar.  The  face  and  body  are  turned  nearly 
facing  the  ground.  The  right  leg  is  being  thrown 
up  and  the  left  leg  thrown  downward. 


Illustration  4.  Shows  the  jumper  just  about  to 
land.  His  left  leg  is  coming  down  and  the  right 
is  still  high  in  the  air.  He  is  facing  parallel  to  the 
bar  and  his  arms  are  being  used  to  assist  in  giving 
him  an  easy  landing. 


78 


"EASTERN  FORM" 


Illustration   1 

Illustration  i.  Shows  the  jumper  taking  off  from 
the  left  foot  in  the  Eastern  form.  The  right  leg 
and  left  arm  swing  up  together.  As  soon  as  the 
left  foot  has  left  the  ground  in  the  spring,  the  shoul- 
ders and  head  are  thrown  to  the  left  and  downward. 
This  throws  the  hips  up  and  ahead  and  gives  him 
what  is  known  as  the  lay-out.  Along  with  this  the 
left  leg  is  swung  up  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
right.  When  these  motions  are  completed  the 
jumper  will  be  lying  on  his  left  side  over  the  bar, 
facing  the  direction  of  the  approach. 

79 


Illustration  2 

Illustration  2..  The  jumper  is  now  lying  on  his 
side  directly  over  the  bar.  When  in  this  position 
the  jumper  holds  with  his  right  leg  and  cuts  his  left 
leg  sharply  backward  and  downward.  The  foot 
crosses  the  .bar  with  the  heel  ahead.  This  motion 
turns  the  jumper  right  side  up  and  lands  him  on 
the  jumping  foot.  If  this  cut  of  the  leg  is  not  made 
the  jumper  will  land  on  his  side. 

80 


B 


Illustration  3 


Illustration  3.  Shows  how  the  downward  and 
backward  cut  of  the  left  leg  turns  the  jumper  over 
as  he  comes  down.  He  will  land  on  his  left  foot 
facing  or  nearly  facing  his  approach  to  the  bar. 


81 


THE  BROAD  JUMP 

I.  TAKE-OFF  BOARD  AND  PIT. 

The  take-off  board  is  8  inches  wide  and  level 
with  the  ground  and  the  jump  must  be  made  with- 
out touching  the  ground  in  front  of  the  board. 

The  pit  should  be  at  least  six  feet  wide  and  rilled 
with  sand  or  soft  dirt.  The  landing  surface  should 
be  level  with  the  take-off  board. 

II.  THE  TAKE-OFF. 

Measure  off  38  feet  from  the  take-off  board,  then 
run  through  and  see  if  the  distance  between  the  38- 
foot  mark  and  the  take-off  can  be  covered  in  six 
running  strides.  If  38  feet  is  too  far,  shorten  the 
distance  and  if  too  short  move  it  back.  After  de- 
termining this  mark  make  note  of  it,  and  make  use 
of  the  same  distance  every  night  in  practice.  When 
this  mark  is  about  right  make  another  mark  six 
strides  back!  of  the  first.  Then  start  back  of  the 
mark  farthest  from  the  take-off,  running  with  easy 
strides  and  hit  this  mark  with  the  right  foot  (that 
is  if  the  jump  is  to  be  made  from  the  right  foot), 
then  run  through  and  see  if  the  right  foot  conies 
on  both  the  second  mark  and  the  take-off.  If  after 
several  trials  the  right  foot  does  not  land  on  the 
second  mark  after  six  strides  in  between  the  marks, 
then  the  first  mark  should  be  changed  and  if  after 
hitting  the  second  mark,  with  the  right  foot,  it  does 
not  hit  the  take-off  board  after  six  strides,  then 

82 


this  mark  also  must  be  moved.  Since  the  run,  is 
the  most  important  thing,  great  care  should  be  exer- 
cised in  getting  the  take-off  correctly.  The  whole 
run  should  be  about  100  feet.  Some  men  have  to. 
run  farther  than  others  to  get  up  speed.  The  run 
should  gradually  increase  in  speed;  but  the  distance 
between  the  second  mark  and  the  take-off  should 
be  covered  at  top  speed.  Do  not  start  too  hard  but 
be  sure  to  get  up  full  speed.  The  last  stride  should 
be  a  few  inches  shorter  than  the  preceding  strides, 
to  assist  the  jumper  to  rise  high  in  the  air. 

Different  runways  will  require  different  measure- 
ments for  marks.  Running  with  or  against  the  wind 
likewise  make  a  difference  in  the  length  of  the 
strides.  In  cold  weather  the  stride  "will  not  be  so 
long  as  in  warm  weather.  In  cold  weather  work 
on  the  take-off  and  do  not  do  much  jumping. 

36  ft  AQft 


L 
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ft 

L.  „..«•„.    _.  •    ..             « 

ft 

L 

R  R  n 

**  •%  —          "  * 

*' 

T*                  *" 

^ 

CHetk  M-f  Check  M-H.  Takeoff 

Run  for  Broad  Jump. 

III.  FORM  IN  JUMPING. 

The  form  most  commonly  used,  if  taking  off  with 
the  right  foot,  is  to  raise  the  left  knee  up  high  and 
then  bring  the  other  up,  and  then  shoot  both  out  as 
far  as  possible.  The  arms  should  be  raised  with 
the  jump,  held  over  the  head  while  the  body  is  in 
mid-air  and  then  pulled  dpwn  at  the  finish.  Some 
men  finish  with  the  arm's  forward. 

83 


Some  men  use  what  is  called  the  hitch  kick  form 
in  the  air. 

This  is  performed  as  follows :  The  left  foot 
moves  forward,  and  then  the  right  foot,  as  he  travels 
through  the  air,  thus  executing  one  running  stride 
with  each  foot  in  mid-air.  Following  this  both 
feet  are  brought  forward  together  for  the  landing. 
This  gives  the  appearance  of  running  through  the 
air.  Since  these  movements  are  made  while  the 
man  is  in  the  air,  the  arms  and  body  must  give 
assistance.  Most  jumpers  who  use  this  form  can- 
not get  high  up  in  the  air.  The  ideal  form  is  the 
one  where  the  hitch  kick  and  the  high  rise  are  both 
attained.  Some  men  acquire  the  hitch  kick  form 
naturally.  They  should  have  the  principles  of  this 
form  explained  to  them  and  should  be  encouraged 
to  master  this  style  of  jumping.  Others  have  great 
difficulty  in  learning  this  form  and  they  should  be 
allowed  to  use  the  other  style. 

IV.   TRAINING. 

Do  not  jump  too  much,  as  it  will  injure  the  jump- 
ing leg.  Three  or  four  times  a  week  and  six  to  ten 
times  a  night  is  sufficient.  In  practice,  the  jumper 
should  strike  with  his  jumping  foot  a  little  bit  back 
of  the  take-off  line.  Then  when  he  gets  into  com- 
petition he  will  be  running  harder  and  will  reach 
out  more.  The  measurement  is  taken  to  the  nearest 
break  of  the  ground,  whether  inside  or  outside  of 
the  pit,  consequently  care  should  be  taken  not  to 
fall  back  on  the  hands  or  buttocks.  However,  most 
beginners  make  the  mistake  of  lighting  with  the 

84 


feet  under  them  rather  than  out  in  front  of  them. 
If  the  feet  are  placed  well  out  in  front  in  landing, 
the  momentum  should  keep  the  body  from  falling 
back. 

If  the  jumper  takes  off  from  the  right  foot  he 
will  come  down  flat-footed  on  the  last  step  before 
the  take-off.  The  left  hits  the  ground  and  conse- 
quently it  is  advisable  to  wear  rubber  padding  in 
the  heels  of  the  jumping  shoes  to  prevent  stone 
bruises. 

Sprinters  usually  make  good  broad  jumpers.  A 
good  jumper  will  spring  from  3^  to  4^4  feet  in 
the  air.  Some  coaches  place  a  hurdle  or  a  bar  in 
the  pit  to  teach  men  to  get  height.  This  is  not 
advisable. 

V.  COMMON  FAULTS. 

1.  Not  getting  an  even  stride  to  the  take-oft'. 

2.  Not  allowing  for  the  effect  on  the  stride  of  cold 
weather,  a  heavy  track  or  a  head  wind. 

3.  Not  springing  high  enough  into  the  air. 

4.  Not  getting  knees  up  and  the  feet  out  far  enough 
in   landing,  thus  causing  them  to  plunge  head 
first  forward. 

5.  Touching  the  ground  behind  them  with    their 
hands. 


85 


Illustration  1 

Illustration  i  shows  the  jumper  about  midway  in 
the  jump.  The  knees  are  well  up  in  front  of  the 
body  and  are, ready -to  be  shot  forward  as  soon 
as  the  jumper  nears  the  landing.  The  arms  are 
forward  and  are  being  used  to  maintain  the  balance 
of  the  body  in  the  air.  The  arms  will  be  brought 
down  sharply  just  before  the  landing  to  assist  in 
throwing  the  body  forward. 


86 


THE  POLE  VAULT 

I.  PRELIMINARY  TRAINING. 

Exercise  on  the  horizontal  bar,  parallel  bar  and 
climbing  rope  are  excellent  for  preliminary  training 
for  pole  vaulters.  Dips  from  the  leaning  rest  and 
pull-ups  on  the  bar  should  be  practiced.  Vaulting 
in  a  big  meet  is  more  or  less  of  an  endurance  feat 
and  consequently  a  vaulter  should  not  neglect  his 
preliminary  training.  The  pole  vault  is  an  acrobatic 
event,  and  the  exercises  mentioned  above  should 
be  followed  throughout  the  training  period  along 
with  sprinting  to  develop  speed  and  strength.  These 
are  splendid  exercises  to  be  used  in  addition  to  the 
actual  vaulting. 

II.  THE  POLE  AND  TAKE-OFF. 

Sixteen  foot  bamboo  poles  are  the  best.  They 
should  be  well  taped  especially  where  the  hands 
grasp  them.  In  choosing  a  pole  select  one  with  a. 
good  balance.  Poles  which  taper  rapidly  at  one 
end  will  not  balance  well.  If  there  are  too  many 
cracks  in  the  pole  it  is  a  pretty  good  sign  that  it  is 
old  and  too  dried  out.  Do  not  have  a  spike  in  the 
end  of  the  pole  used  out-of-doors.  The  spring  in 
the  pole  helps  to  snap  the  runner  over  the  bar,  but 
care  should  be  taken  not  to  get  one  that  is  too  lim- 
ber. A  pole  that  bends  too  much  is  likely  to  break 
and  will  not  snap  the  vaulter  at  the  right  time. 

87 


For  a  take-off  board,  set  a  board  on  one  edge  in 
the  ground,  and  dig  a  hole  about  6  inches  deep.  Slant 
the  dirt  back  from  the  hole  towards  the  runway  so 
that  the  pole  will  slide  into  the  hole  easily.  A  blunt 
end  of  the  pole  is  preferable  to  a  sharp  end. 

III.  THE  RUN. 

Measure  off  a  take-off  mark  about  55  feet  from 
the  take-off  board,  and  see  if  the  vaulter  can  cover 
this  distance  in  eight  running  strides.  The  vaulter 
should  learn  to  go  through  his  run  with  a  medium, 
long  and  even  stride.  The  run  is  measured  from 
the  take-off  board  to  give  a  definite  mark  for  meas- 
urement but  the  vaulter  leaves  the  ground  about 
ten  feet  back  of  the  take-off  board.  This  means 
that  he  should  cover  about  45  feet  in  eight  running 
strides.  If  the  vaulter  comes  too  close  to  the  take- 
off in  running  eight  strides  from  the  55-foot  mark, 
then  the  latter  should  be  moved  back.  If  this  does 
not  bring  him  close  enough  move  the  mark  closer 
up.  To  practice  getting  this  run,  stand  several 
yards  back  of  the  55-foot  mark  then  run  through, 
step  on  the  mark  and  take  eight  strides  at  nearly 
top  speed,  and  then  note  where  the  take-off  step 
comes.  To  determine  where  this  mark  should  be, 
grasp  the  pole  at  the  same  height  as  when  vaulting. 
Place  the  end  of  the  pole  in  the  hole  and  raise  the 
hands  over  the  head.  Stand  with  body  back  so  that 
the  hands  come  a  trifle  in  front  of  the  head.  See 
Plate  2.  Mark  the  position  of  the  feet.  This  mark 
will  be  known  as  the  take-off,  the  55-foot  mark  as 
check  mark,  and  the  go-foot  mark  as  the  start. 

88 


\* 


£ 

Xm'  '~ie  —  iff"tf-!t—tf- 


55/K 

L. 


£ 

Cheek  M-t  Check  H-Z  To/t»-aff 

The  entire  run  should  be  about  95  feet  long.  After 
determining  the  check  mark,  measure  back  40  feet. 
Stand  with  both  feet  on  this  mark,  step  off  with  the 
right  foot  and  run  to  the  check  mark,  taking  eight 
strides,  gradually  increasing  the  speed.  The  vaulter 
should  land  on  the  check  mark  on  his  take-off  foot. 
If  he  steps  over,  move  the  starting  mark  back  and 
vice  versa.  The  above  directions  are  for  a  vaulter 
who  takes  off  from  his  left  foot.  It  is  important 
that  the  take-off  be  learned  before  vaulting  is  at- 
tempted. Allowance  should  be  made  for  the  wind, 
cold  weather  and  the  condition  of  the  runways.  If 
the  runways  are  slow,  the  weather  cold,  or  if  the 
vault  is  against  the  wind,  the  run  should  be 
shortened. 

IV.  THE  VAULT. 

If  the  vault  is  made  from  the  left  foot  the  pole 
should  be  carried  on  the  right  side.  The  hands 
grasp  the  pole  with  the  thumbs  pointing  towards  the 
upper  end  of  the  pole,  and  about  two  feet  apart. 
The  pole  should  be  carried  with  the  point  straight 
ahead  and  slightly  elevated.  In  carrying  the  pole 
the  body  should  not  be  turned  to  the  side,  but  should 
be  faced  to  the  front  as  much  as  possible.  Some 

89 


of  the  best  vaulters  are  able  to  clear  the  bar  by 
holding-  the  pole  with  the  upper  hand  as  much  as 
a  foot  lower  than  the  cross  bar  when  vaulting  at 
their  greatest  heights.  This,  however,  requires 
great  strength  in  the  arms  and  shoulders  and  per- 
fect form.  It  is  well  to  use  a  hold  on  the  pole  above 
the  cross  bar  when  vaulting  at  a  low  height  and 
then  to  take  hold  only  a  few  inches  above  this  when 
vaulting  at  greater  heights.  It  is  well  to  use  about 
the  same  height  of  grasp  for  all  vaults  since  any 
great  variation  will  change  the  run  and  the  form. 
On  low  heights  the  standards  should  be  moved  back 
so  that  the  bar  is  about  one  foot  from  the  take-off 
hole.  As  the  bar  is  moved  higher  the  standards 
should  be  brought  closer  until  the  bar  is  almost  ver- 
tically even  with  the  hole  when  the  vaulter  attempts 
his  highest  heights.  The  reason  for  this  is  that  as 
the  height  is  increased  the  arc  of  the  swing  is  more 
perpendicular  than  in  the  case  of  a  vault  over  a 
low  height. 

As  the  pole  hits  the  take-off  hole  the  lower  hand 
should  be  shifted  close  to  the  upper  hand.  Simul- 
taneously with  this  movement  the  hands  are  raised 
above  the  head.  These  movements  are  both  executed 
as  the  left  foot  hits  the  take-off.  The  feet  should 
swing  past  the  pole  upward  and  straight  ahead.  The 
feet  should  be  swung  as  high  as  possible.  As  the 
momentum  of  the  vault  begins  to  lessen,  the  pull- 
up  of  the  arms  begin.  In  pulling  up,  the  body  •  is 
slightly  turned  to  the  right  to  avoid  hitting  the  bar 
with  the  hip  and  to  enable  the  vaulter  to  push  up 

90 


to  a  hand  stand.  From  the  hand  stand  the  body  is 
arched  over  with  the  chest  towards  the  bar.  At 
the  moment  of  clearing  the  bar,  the  pole  should  be 
pushed  back  and  the  arms  thrown  upward.  Sug- 
gestion :  The  coach  may  note  the  point  of  the 
greatest  height  by  standing  at  one  side.  He  can 
adjust  the  standards  accordingly. 
V.  COMMON  FAULTS. 

1.  Holding  the  pole  with  left  thumb  down. 

2.  Carrying  pole  diagonally  across  the  body. 

3.  Chopping  or  missing  the  stride  when  approach- 
ing the  take-off. 

4.  Not  getting  the  shift. 

5.  Over  running  take-off  when  vaulting. 

6.  Going  over  with  back  to  the  bar. 

7.  Not  completing  swing  before  pull-up  is  made. 

8.  Throwing  body. for  distance  rather  than  height. 
In  the  illustrations  of  the  pole  vault  the  vaults 

were  made  at  a  height  of  10  feet,  6  inches,  with 
exception  to  illustration  6,  which  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  the  top  hand  is  higher  than  the  bar.  The 
lower  hand  should  have  been  shifted  close  to  the 
upper  hand. 


91 


Illustration  1 

Illustration  i.  Shows  the  vaulter  in  position  to 
start  his  run  for  the  take-off.  The  pole  is  held  on 
his  right  side.  This  means  that  he  should  take-off 
with  his  left  foot.  Note  the  position  of  the  hands 
with  the  thumbs  held  toward  the  top  end  of  the 
pole.  Most  vaulters  carry  the  pole  with  the  hands 
farther  apart.  The  front  end  of  the  pole  is  ele- 
vated and  points  straight  ahead. 


92 


Illustration  2 

Illustration  2..  Shows  the  vaulter  marking  his 
take-oft".  His  hands  are  held  in  the  same  position 
which  they  will  be  in  after  the  shift  is  made  and 
when  the  vaulter  leaves  the  ground.  Note  that  the 
feet  are  about  12  inches  behind  a  line  drawn  per- 
pendicular from  the  hands  to  the  ground.  It  is 
very  important  that  the  take-oft"  be  marked  at  the 
proper  distance  from  the  hole. 


93 


Illustration  3 

Illustration    3.     The    vaulter    has    just    left   the 
ground  from  his  right  foot  and  is  in  the  middle  of 


the  "pendulum  swing."  The  hands  are  well  above 
the  head  and  the  vaulter  is  facing  squarely  to  the 
front.  The  swing  should  be  prolonged  as  much 
as  possible  to  allow  the  feet  to  swing  high  above 
the  shoulders.  After  the  body  passes  the  pole  the 
turning  motion  of  the  body  begins. 


F  I         ^ 


Illustration  4 


>      Illustration  4.     Shows  the  vaulter  near  the  end 

*,of  the  "pendulum  swing."    The  feet  are  well  above 

the  shoulders  and  the  turning  motion  is  just  being 

made.  The  pull-up  with  the  arms  is  just  being  made 

at  this  time. 


Illustration  5 


Illustration  5.  Shows  the  vaulter  facing  the  bar 
at  the  completion  of  the  turning  motion.  The  pull- 
up  ends  with  a  hand  stand  at  which  point  the  feet 
are  at  their  highest  elevation.  As  the  feet  drop,  the 
vaulter  makes  his  final  push  up  and  away  from  the 
pole.  Ordinarily  the  vaulter  should  land  facing 
the  bar,  but  in  some  instances  the  turning  motion 
continues  which  causes  the  vaulter  to  land  facing 
away  from  the  bar.  The  position  in  landing  is  not 
important  but  it  is  essential  that  the  vaulter  swing 
his  legs  straight  ahead  and  face  the  bar  at  the  time 
he  pushes  ahead. 


Illustration  6.  Shows  vaulter  clearing  the  bar 
in  perfect  form  at  13  feet.  Note  that  he  is  just 
pushing  away  from  the  hand  stand  and  the  body 
is  arched  over  the  bar.  The  height  is  about  as  high 
as  it  is  possible  to  make  with  thejength  of  grip  on 
the  pole. 

97 


THE  SHOT  PUT 

I.  IMPLEMENT  AND  CIRCLE. 

The  weight  of  the  shot  for  interscholastic  meets 
is  12  pounds,  and  for  intercollegiate,  16  pounds. 

The  diameter  of  the  circle  is  7  feet. 

A  brass  shot  is  generally  used. 

Toe  board — 4  inches  high  and  with  a  circumfer- 
ence of  4  feet  and  firmly  fastened  to  ground. 

II.  FORM. 

Hold  the  shot  with  fingers  slightly  apart  with 
thumb  in  front.  Hold  it  with  ends  of  fingers  and 
the  thumb  with  the  weight  resting  on  the  portion 
of  the  hand  where  the  fingers  join  the  palm.  It  is 
a  mistake  to  hold  the  shot  with  the  fingers  together 
and  with  the  weight  resting  on  the  heel  of  the  hand. 

The  arm  position  varies  with  different  men.  For 
most  men  the  shot  should  be  held  in  front  of  the 
shoulder,  with  the  elbow  down  at  the  side.  The  el- 
bow should  pass  close  to  the  side  in  putting  and 
should  keep  in  line  with  the  direction  of  the  throw. 
This  results  in  a  push  which  is  the  best  way  to  get 
a  good  drive. 

Preliminary  Practice  Position:  Place  the  right 
foot  in  the  ring  far  enough  back  so  that  the  left 
may  reach  the  toe  board.  Then  practice  putting 
with  the  reverse  without  the  hop,  as  follows: 

The  position  of  the  left  shoulder  is  in  line  with 
99 


the  throw.  Turn  to  get  right  shoulder  behind  the 
put.  Reverse  the  feet  by  quickly  changing,  so  that 
the  right  foot  will  be  where  the  left  was  and  the 
left  where  the  right  formerly  was.  The  arm  push 
follows  the  shoulder  throw.  Throw  the  weight  of 
the  shoulders  and  body  against  the  shot  at  the  same 
time  making  a  sharp  spring  from  the  left  to  the  right 
foot. 

Beginners  should  watch  the  position  of  the  hand 
and  strive  for  a  wrist  snap.  Do  not  jerk  the  arm 
but  follow  the  put  well  through. 

The  left  arm  gives  balance  both  at  the  beginning 
and  end  of  the  put. 

At  the  start,  the  head  turns  half  way  around  to 
get  the  shoulder  motion  and  then  it  is  turned  so 
that  the  eyes  follow  the  shot. 

Travel  and  turn:  Hop  on  right  foot  and  land  on 
the  right.  Then  land  left  foot  quickly,  reverse  and 
continue  through. 

Take  position  at  the  back  of  circle  with  the  right 
foot  at  right  angles  to  the  throw  and  with  left  shoul- 
der and  side  toward  the  front.  Swing  the  left  foot 
back  and  forward  a  couple  of  times,  swinging  left 
foot  behind  right  foot  on  the  preliminary  swings, 
then  hop  on  right  foot  and  land  on  both  feet.  Do 
not  jump  high.  Avoid  pause  in  center  of  the  circle 
and  keep  relaxed  to  end  of  delivery. 

Start  slowly  and  get  the  greatest  speed  from  the 
time  of  landing  in  the  middle  of  the  ring  to  the  end 
of  the  delivery. 

100 


III.  PRACTICE. 

Always  warm  up  with  just  the  delivery  from  the 
reverse  and  then  work  on  the  hop  and  turns. 

Work  about  thirty  minutes  a  day  but  be  careful 
not  to  injure  the  arm  with  over- work.  As  a  rule 
when  the  arm  gets  sore  it  is  because  the  man  em- 
ploys a  throwing  motion  rather  than  the  putting 
form. 

Since  a  great  deal  depends  upon  the  legs  it  is  well 
to  practice  sprints  and  jumps.  It  is  a  .good  rule 
to  work  only  on  form  during  the  week  and  then  try 
for  distance  every  Saturday  in  competition. 

IV.  SUGGESTIONS. 

Up  and  down  movements  of  the  shot  at  the  start 
do  not  do  any  good. 

A  quick  pull  back  of  the  right  shoulder  just  be- 
fore starting  the  put  and  reverse  will  add  several 
inches  to  the  put. 

The  top  of  the  toe  board  must  not  be  touched  by 
any  part  of  the  body. 

For  preliminary  practice  take  regular  calisthenic 
exercises  each  day  and  throw  the  medicine  ball. 

V.  COMMON  FAULTS. 

1.  Holding  shot  in  the  heel  of  the  hand. 

2.  Putting  without  the  reverse. 

3.  Hopping  too  high,  which  causes  a  pause  in   the 
middle  of  the  ring. 


101 


Illustration   1 


Illustration  i.  Shows  first  position  at  the  back 
of  the  ring.  Note  the  position  of  the  arm  and  the 
method  of  holding  the  shot. 


Illustration  2 


Illustration  2.  The  left  leg  is  swung  backward 
and  forward  two  or  three  times  preliminary  to  mak- 
ing the  hop.  The  left  foot  is  behind  the  right  as 
the  hop  is  started.  The  left  foot  swings  forward 
to  assist  in  the  hop.  In  the  hop  the  right  foot  should 
remain  close  to  the  ground  and  should  land  at  about 
the  center  of  the  ring. 


Illustration  3 


Illustration  3.  Shows  the  position  in  the  front 
of  the  ring  after  the  hop.  The  thrower  is  now  in 
position  to  deliver  the  shot.  Note  that  the  position 
of  the  hand  and  arm  are  very  similar  to  the  position 
in  Illustration  No.  i.  The  thrower  is  leaning  well 
back  and  his  arm  and  shoulder  are  squarely  behind 
the  shot. 


105 


Illustration  4 
Illustration  4.     Shows  the  position  of  arm  and 


body  at  the  moment  of  delivering  the  shot.  Note 
that  the  thrower  is  on  his  left  foot  until  after  the 
shot  has  left  his  hand.  Also  note  that  the  arm  is 
fully  extended,  making  a  perfect  follow  through 
which  ends  with  a  snap  of  the  wrist  and  fingers 
against  the  shot. 


Illustration  5 

Illustration  5.  Shows  position  after  the  reverse 
with  the  weight  on  the  right  leg.  The  left  leg  and 
arm  are  used  for  balance. 

107 


THE  DISCUS  THROW 

I.  IMPLEMENT  AND  CIRCLE. 

The  discus  is  8^  inches  in  diameter  and  i^4 
inches  thick,  and  weighs  4  pounds  6  2/5  ounces. 

The  circle  from  which  the  throw  is  made  is  8 
feet  21/2  inches  in  diameter.  The  toe  board  is  not 
used  but  a  clearly  defined  white  line  should  mark 
the  circumference  of  the  circle. 

II.  FORM. 

(a)  Throw  with  reverse  without  the  turn. 

Hold  the  discus  with  the  hand  flat,  fingers  slightly 
apart,  and  with  the  first  joint  of  the  fingers  over 
the  edge.  This  depends  somewhat  on  the  grip  of 
the  contestant.  A  man  with  a  big  hand  and  strong 
fingers  can  take  a  lighter  hold.  The  thumb  is  not 
over  the  edge. 

In  leaving  the  hand  the  discus  should  spin  off  the 
first  fingers. 

The  angle  at  which  the  discus  leaves  the  hand 
depends  upon  the  position  of  the  hand  or  arm.  The 
arm  turns  to  the  left,  and  the  back  of  the  hand 
should  be  up.  In  a  perfect  throw  the  performer 
can  see  the  front  edge  slightly  above  the  back.  To 
get  a  high  throw  there  should  be  a  low  arm  dip  and 
vice  versa  for  a  low  throw.  At  first  the  throw 
should  be  taught  with  a  reverse  without  the  turn 
across  the  ring.  To  do  this,  the  man  should  stand 
facing -the  direction  in  which  the  throw  is  to  be 
108 


made,  with  feet  apart.  Swing  the  discus  back  and 
forth  two  or  three  times,  steadying  it  with  the  left 
hand  at  the  top  of  each  swing.  As  the  arm  swings 
back,  step  forward  with  the  left  foot,  then  deliver 
by  changing  from  the  left  to  the  right  foot.  That 
is,  the  right  is  shifted  to  the  position  formerly  oc- 
cupied by  the  left  and  the  left  to  the  spot  where  the 
right  was  before  the  turn.  This  reverse  enables 
the  thrower  to  stay  within  the  circle  and  helps  to 
prevent  fouling  and  enables  the  thrower  to  get  his 
body  weight  behind  the  throw. 

The  throw  is  accomplished  by  the  turn  of  the 
body  which  really  throws  the  arm.  The  arm  is  held 
loosely  and  relaxed  but  straight  at  the  elbow. 

(b)  Throw  with  single  turn. 

Start  at  the  back  of  the  ring  facing  the  throw 
with  both  heels  just  inside  of  the  back  of  the  circle. 

1.  Left  foot  steps   forward  as  the  arm  swings 
back. 

2.  Right  foot  crosses  left  with  a  forward  step. 
Turn  on  the  balls  of  the  feet. 

3.  Left   foot  advances   forward  almost  to  the 
front  of  the  circle.     This  is  a  quick  step.    This  com- 
pletes the  first  part  of  the  turn.     The  rest  of  the 
turn  is  executed  by  the  reverse,  which  occurs  after 
the  discus  has  left  the  hand. 

(c)  Position  of  the  hands  and  arms. 

The  left  arm  is  held  well  back  at  the  reverse  to 
help  maintain  the  balance. 

The  right  arm  is  always  back  until  the  final  de- 
livery. Most  men  make  the  mistake  of  not  drag- 
109 


ging  the  arm  behind  as  the  body  turns.  The  arm 
should  be  loose,  and  the  steps  are  as  if  it  were  away 
from  the  arm. 

At  the  start,  hold  the  discus  with  the  back  of  the 
hand  towards  the  ground.  The  arm  is  then  in  posi- 
tion to  throw  with  no  unnecessary  motions  and  there 
is  no  twist  in  coming  out.  This  seems  awkward 
at  first,  but  men  who  learn  this  way  improve  faster 
than  those  who  hold  the  discus  with  the  hand  upper- 
most at  the  start. 

III.  PRACTICE. 

To  warm  up,  take  several  practice  throws  with 
just  the  reverse  and  then  go  through  the  turn.  If 
only  training  for  this  event,  take  practice  starts  and 
jumps ;  for  a  great  deal  of  a  discus  thrower's  success 
depends  upon  the  strength  of  his  legs  and  the  speed 
with  which  he  can  move  them.  Do  not  practice 
too  long  at  a  time.  Seldom  practive  over  -half  an 
hour  or  about  twenty  throws.  Each  man,  however, 
should  find  out  how  much  work  he  can  stand,  and 
he  should  always  remember  that  it  is  better  to  un- 
derwork than  to  overwork. 

Frequently  a  discus  man  will  lose  his  form  in 
the  middle  of  the  season.  When  this  occurs  start 
all  over  again  and  go  through  the  practice  slowly. 

IV.  SUGGESTIONS. 

If  throwing  with  the  wind,  make  a  higher  throw 

with  a  lower  dip  of  the  arm.     If  throwing  against 

the  wind,  throw  lower  by  not  allowing  the  arm  to 

dip  with  the  throw,  and  by  holding  the  thumb  lower. 

110 


Itjs  advisable  to  practice  throwing  the  discus  both 
with,  against,  and  across  the  wind. 

Always  try  to  perfect  the  form  in  practice,  rather 
than  to  make  a  record.  Best  throws  are  oftentimes 
made  with  apparently  the  least  effort. 

It  sometimes  pays  to  practice  for  two  or  three 
months  and  then  lay  off  for  awhile. 


Discus   Throw. 

Travel  across  Circle. 


in 


Practice  throwing  in  competition  every  Saturday, 
'if  possible.     One  good  way  is  to  have  handicap 
contests. 
V.  COMMON  FAULTS. 

1.  The  discus  is  not  held    tightly    enough    by    the 
finger  tips. 

2.  The  back  of  the  hand  is  not  help  up    at    the 
moment  of  delivery,  and  this  causes  the  discus 
to  sail  at  an  improper  angle. 

3.  The  first  turn  is  made  too  rapidly. 

4.  The  arm  is  not  far  enough  behind  the  body  at 
the  time  that  the  reverse  is  begun. 

5.  The  throw  is  made  without  a  reverse. 

6.  The  discus  is  thrown  off  the  little  finger  instead 
of  being  spun  off  the  first  finger. 


112 


Illustration  1 
113 


Illustration  i.  Position  of  thro\yer  at  the  back 
of  the  ring  making  the  preliminary  arm  swings. 
With  the  backward  swing  of  the  right  arm  the  left 
foot  steps  forward,  making  the  first  movement  of 
the  body  turn.  Note  the  method  of  gripping  the 
discus  and  supporting  it  at  the  top  of  the  swing 
with  the  left  hand. 


Illustration  2 


Illustration  2.  The  thrower  has  stepped  forward 
with  his  left  foot  and  is  starting  to  pivot  on  the 
left  toe.  The  right  foot  will  come  to  the  spot 
marked  X.  The  pivot  will  then  be  continued  until 
the  thrower  is  in  position  to  step  near  the  front 
edge  of  the  ring  with  the  left  foot.  Note  the  posi- 
tion of  the  throwing  arm  which  is  trailing  well  be- 
hind the  body. 


Illustration  3 

Illustration  3.    The  thrower  has  finished  the  pivot 
and  has  stepped  to  the  front  of  the  ring  with  the 
116 


left  foot  from  which  position  the  delivery  is  made. 
The  illustration  shows  the  throwing  arm  just  as 
it  swings  around,  making  the  throw.  Note' the  po- 
sition of  the  discus  as  it  spins  off  the  forefinger. 
Also  note  that  at  the  time  of  delivery  the  thrower 
is  standing  on  his  left  foot.  The  reverse  of  the 
feet  follows  immediately. 


117 


Illustration   4 

Illustration  4.     This  shows  the  position  of    the 
118 


thrower  just  after  the  discus  has  left  his  hand.  His 
throwing  arm  is  swinging  around.  Note  that  the 
arm  is  fully  extended  and  the  foot  reverse  is  be- 
ginning. 


Illustration  5 

Illustration  5.  The  thrower  has  completed  the 
reverse  by  shifting  his  weight  from  his  left  leg  to 
the  right.  The  left  leg  is  thrown  around  behind 
him  to  control  his  balance  and  thus  prevent  him 
from  falling  forward  and  out  of  the  ring.  The  arms 
also  assist  in  maintaining  the  balance. 
119 


THE  HAMMER  THROW 

I.  IMPLEMENTS  AND  CIRCLE. 

The  weight  of  the  hammer  for  Interscholastic 
use  is  twelve  pounds;  for  Intercollegiate  use,  six- 
teen pounds. 

The  length  is  not  over  four  feet.  The  wire  con- 
necting the  handles  and  the  shot  is  number  36  piano 
wire. 

The  circle  is  seven  feet  in  diameter  and  should 
be  a  well  defined  mark.  An  iron  band  ll/2  inches 
wide  and  ^4  mcn  thick  driven  flush  with  the 
ground  and  painted  white  makes  a  good  ring. 

Handles:  I.  Heavy  tinner's  wire.  Right  hand 
grip  l/2  inch  shorter  than  left. 

2.  Single  handle  of  heavier  wire.  Some  of  the 
best  throwers  use  the  heavy  single  wire.  To  do 
this  they  wrap  the  wire  with  tape  so  that  they  will 
not  cut  their  hands,  and  then  grip  with  the  right 
hand  over  the  left. 

The  best  hammers  have  a  swivel  so  that  the  wire 
will  not  twist  easily.  A  ball-bearing  swivel  is  the 
best. 

Short  men  should  use  handles  3  feet  9  inches,  3 
feet  10  inches,  or  3  feet  n  inches  long,  depending 
upon  the  height  of  the  individual.  The  thrower, 
however,  should  use  just  as  long  a  handle  as  pos- 
sible. Beginners  should  learn  to  throw  a  light  ham- 
mer with  a  short  handle. 

120 


II.    FORM. 

First  learn  to  swing  the  hammer  around  the  head, 
and  deliver  while  standing  in  the  front  of  the 
circle. 

Next  practice  the  single  turn,  and  then  later  the 
double  turn.  Some  throwers  succeed  in  executing 
the  triple  turn,  but  they  are  exceptional.  Nearly  any 
experienced  thrower  can  throw  farther  with  the 
triple  turn,  but  it  is  harder  to  stay  in  the  ring  than 
when  the  throw  is  made  with  the  double  turn.  Stand 
with  the  back  towards  the  direction  of  the  throw 
with  feet  spread  about  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches 
apart.  See  illustrations.  Swing  the  hammer  around 
the  head  with  a  turning  motion  of  the  hips,  making 
the  lowest  point  of  the  swing  come  in  front  of  the 
right  foot.  At  this  point  of  the  swing  the  arms 
should  be  fully  extended,  and  the  hammer  head 
should  pass  close  to  the  ground.  See  illustration 
number  2.  As  the  hammer  head  nears  the  lowest 
point  of  the  swing  the  body-turns  are  executed  as 
follows:  The  right  foot  is  swung  around  in  front 
of  the  left  foot  to  a  position  about  two  feet  behind 
the  position  originally  held  by  the  right  foot.  Mean- 
while the  body  pivots  on  the  left  toe.  Simultane- 
ously with  the  placing  of  the  right  foot,  the  left  foot 
is  stepped  back  to  a  position  even  with  the  right. 
See  illustration  number  3.  This  completes  the  first 
turn  and  places  the  thrower  in  a  similar  position  to 
the  one  previously  occupied  in  the  back  of  the  ring. 
The  knees  should  be  slightly  bent  throughout  the 
turn. 

121 


In  using  the  double  turn  these  movements  are 
duplicated  and  should  bring  the  thrower  to  the  front 
of  the  ring  in  position  for  final  delivery.  In  using 
the  triple  turn  the  distance  used  in  turning  must  be 
shorter  each  time. 

While  making  the  turns  remember  to  keep  the 
arms  and  body  straight.  Do  not  pause  between 
turns.  The  turns  should  be  made  with  a  continu- 
ous motion.  This  will  give  the  thrower  the  neces- 
sary lead  in  the  turning  so  as  to  enable  him  to 
maintain  a  steady  pull  on  the  hammer  in  making 
the  throw. 

In  making  the  delivery  the  position  of  the  feet 
is  the  same  as  that  taken  by  the  thrower  in  the 
back  of  the  ring.  As  the  hammer  comes  around 
in  the  final  swing  turn  on  the  balls  of  both  feet 
facing  the  direction  of  the  throw.  Keep  the  arms 
fully  extended  to  give  the  proper  follow  through. 
When  the  hammer  leaves  the  hands  the  legs  are 
crossed.  See  illustration  number  4.  It  is  well  to 
hold  this  position  momentarily  to  secure  balance 
and  prevent  fouling.  Do  not  leave  the  circle  until 
the  throw  is  marked.  In  practice  the  thrower 
should  always  pause  a  reasonable  length  of  time 
before  leaving  the  ring  so  as  to  accustom  himself 
to  the  conditions  of  competition. 
III.  PRACTICE. 

A  great  deal  of  practice  is  required  to  throw  the 

hammer  properly,  and  one    should    practice    about 

an  hour  a  day  when  learning  the  form.    All  forms 

of  calisthenics  and  selected  gymnastic    work,    as 

122 


well  as  sprinting  and  jumping  practice,    are    good 
for  preliminary  training. 

Experienced   throwers   do  not  require    a    great 
deal  of  preliminary  practice. 

Beginners  should  first  learn  to  turn  by  jumping 
around,  but  as  soon  as  possible  should  learn  how 
to  pivot. 
IV.    COMMON  FAULTS. 

1.  Throwing  with  the  arms  bent  at  the  elbows. 

2.  Pausing  between  the  turns. 

3.  Throwing  over  the  left  shoulder  instead  of  turn- 
ing the  body  ahead  of  the  throw. 

4.  Stepping  out  of  the  ring  with  the  right  foot  as 
the  hammer  leaves  the  hands.    This  may  be  cor- 
rected by  leaning  back  against    the    throw    and 
by  holding  a  crossed-leg  position. 

5.  Traveling  out  of  the  ring  on  the  thrower's  left. 
To  correct  this,  bring  the  hammer  to  its  low  point 
in  the  swing  in  front  of  the  left  foot  rather  than 
in  front  of  the  right. 

6.  Making  too  great  a  circle  with  the  hands  when 
swinging  the  hammer  around  the  head. 


123 


Hammer   Throw. 

Travel  across  Ctrc/e 


124 


Illustration  1 

Illustration  i.  Shows  first  position  taken  by  the 
thrower.  The  hammer  is  laid  out  at  arms  length 
at  the  thrower's  right.  Note  that  the  handles  are 
gripped  between  the  first  and  second  joints  of  the 
fingers.  The  delivery  will  be  from  the  spot  marked 
X. 


125 


Illustration  2 

Illustration  2..     Shows  the  thrower  making    the 
preliminary  swings  around  his  head.     As  the  ham- 
mer swings  around,  the  weight  is  shifted  from  the 
126 


right  to  the  left  foot  with  each  complete  circle  of 
the  hammer.  The  hips  turn  with  a  twisting  motion. 
The  hammer  head  is  at  its  lowest  point  straight 
out  in  front  of  the  right  foot,  and  the  elbows  are 
straight  at  this  point  of  the  swing. 


Illustration  3 

Illustration  3.    Shows  the  position  of  the  thrower 
just  as  he  has  completed  the  first  body  turn.     His 
127 


weight  is  mostly  on  the  left  foot  on  which  he  is  go- 
ing to  pivot,  and  his  right  foot  is  just  beginning  to 
step  around  to  make  the  second  turn.  Note  that  the 
arms  are  straight  and  that  the  thrower  is  leaning 
well  back  against  the  weight  of  the  hammer.  Also 
that  he  has  advanced  about  halfway  across  the 
ring  in  making  his  first  body  turn. 


Illustration  4 


Illustration  4.    Shows  the  position  of  the  thrower 
129 


at  the  instant  of  the  delivery.  Xote  how  he  has 
turned  on  his  toes  to  give  him  the  full  reach  of  the 
body  and  arms  in  the  delivery.  He  can  now  step 
sideward  with  his  right  foot  to  maintain  his  bal- 
ance after  the  delivery.  Some  throwers  step  to 
the,  side  with  the  left  foot  for  the  same  purpose. 
Note  that  in  delivering  the  hammer  both  feet  are 
on  the  ground  with  the  weight  equally  distributed. 


130 


THE  JAVELIN  THROW 

I.  IMPLEMENT  AND  THROW  LINK. 

The  javelin  weighs  one  pound  and  three-quarters 
and  is  one  inch  in  diameter.  It  is  8  feet  6  inches 
long  and  has  a  balance  grip  about  three  feet  from 
the  forward  end. 

The  javelin  must  be  held  by  the  grip  and  be 
thrown  from  behind  a  take-off  line  which  consists 
of  a  board  three  inches  wide  and  twelve  feet  long 
sunk  flush  with  the  ground.  Stepping  over  or  on 
this  line  constitutes  a  foul. 

II.  THE  FORM. 

Grip  the  javelin  with  the  thumb  and  the  first 
and  second  fingers.  Some  men  hold  it  with  the 
whole  hand  but  throw  with  the  thumb  and  the  first 
two  fingers.  The  javelin  should  be  on  top  of  the 
thumb. 

There  are  two  ways  of.  holding  the  arm  in  throw- 
ing: (i)  on  top  of  the  shoulder,  and  (2)  carried 
back  to  the  rear.  With  either  method  the  arm 
moves  back  at  the  end  of  the  run. 

The  throwing  motion  is  much  the  same  as  in 
throwing  a  baseball.  It  is  thrown  with  a  snap  of 
the  arm.  The  back  should  be  used  as  much  as' 
possible  to  help  with  the  throw.  The  chief  thing 
of  importance  is  to  get  the  hand  right  over  the 
top  of  the  shoulder  so  that  the  force  will  pull 
through  the  center  of  the  javelin. 
131 


To  get  the  proper  approach  every  step  should 
be  measured  so  that  no  thought  about  the  step  will 
be  necessary  when  throwing  in  a  meet. 

In  preliminary  practice,  start  with  the  reverse 
and  make  several  short  throws.  Use  a  short  run 
at  first  and  keep  adding  to  it.  It  is  well  to  stop 
about  a  foot  short  of  the  finish  line,  for  in  compe- 
tition the  contestant  will  have  a  tendency  to  step 
farther,  and  care  must  be  exercised  not  to  step  over 
the  line. 

The  run  should  be  about  45  or  50  feet  long.  In 
covering  this  distance  the  thrower  should  grad- 
ually increase  the  speed  of  his  run  as  he  approaches 
the  scratch  line.  When  he  reaches  a  point  about 
15  feet  from  the  scratch  line  he  should  be  running 
at  top  speed.  This  is  the  place  where  the  criss- 
cross or  hop  is  started.  The  criss-cross  is  executed 
as  follows:  turn  the  body  to  the  left  and  shift  the 
right  foot  around  behind  the  left  foot.  This  will 
permit  him  to  extend  his  arm  behind  him,  thus  en- 
abling him  to  get  the  full  force  of  his  arm  and 
body  into  the  throw.  Next,  he  steps  forward  with 
his  left  foot  and  springs  from  his  left  foot  to  the 
right  foot  as  the  javelin  is  delivered.  This  is  the 
reverse  which  is  similar  to  the  reverse  in  the  discus 
except  that  his  speed  carries  him  forward  several 
feet.  The  left  leg  may  be  used  to  assist  in  main- 
taining the  balance  as  the  throw  is  completed  to  pre- 
vent the  thrower  from  fouling. 

If  the  hop  is  used  it  should  start  at  the  same 
place  as  the  criss-cross.  It  is  performed  by  hopping 
132 


on  the  right  foot,  then  by  reaching  forward  with 
the  left  and  this  step  is  followed  by  the  reverse. 

After  the  reverse  is  made,  whether  from  the 
criss-cross  or  the  hop,  the  thrower  may  sometimes 
save  himself  from  falling  by  running  to  the  left 
along  the  scratch  line. 


Run  for  Jave/t'n  TTtrov. 


Cr/88-  cross 


Run  for  Jave//ti  Tfyrout. 

III.   PRACTICE. 

The  practice  throws  should  always  be  made  with 
an  easy  motion.  Do  not  continually  try  for  distance 
but  work  always  for  form,  and  the  distance  will 
take  care  of  itself  in  competition. 

Javelin  throwers  often  injure  their  arms  and  such 
an  injury,  like  a  baseball  player's  injury  in  the  arm, 
may  always  bother. 

It  is  not  well  for  a  shot  putter  to  throw  the  jave- 
lin very  much.     Some  good  shot  putters  have  been 
injured  by  throwing  the  javelin. 
133 


Take  plenty  of  time  in  warming  up  and  do  not 
throw  after  the  arm  feels  dead.  Javelin  throwers 
should  practice  sprinting  and  above  all  they  should 
practice  the  run,  criss-cross,  and  reverse  both  with 
and  without  the  javelin. 

IV.    SUGGESTIONS. 

Since  all  throws  are  measured  from  the  base  line 
at  right  angles  to  the  hitting  point,  strive  to  throw 
as  straight  as  possible.  In  throwing  with  the  re- 
verse, the  javelin  travels  over  the  hypotenuse  of 
the  right  triangle. 

Each  individual  will  possess  difference  in  step 
and  reverse.  Strive  to  work  out  such  details  as 
the  run,  length  of  step  at  criss-cross,  and  reverse 
to  fit  individual  differences. 

Jumping  shoes  with  heel  spikes  should  be  used 
especially  on  the  sod. 


134 


Illustration  1 


135 


Illustration  I.  Shows  the  methods  of  carrying 
the  javelin  at  the  side  of  the  thrower.  The  javelin 
is  pointing  straight  ahead  with  point  slightly  ele- 
vated. As  the  throw  is  made  the  hand  is  turned 
over  with  the  back  downward.  This  brings  his 
hand  and  arm  into  position  for  the  overhand 
throw. 


136 


Illustration  2 
137 


Illustration  -2.  Shows  the  method  of  carrying  the 
javelin  with  the  hand  above  the  shoulder.  As  the 
hop  is  made  preliminary  to  the  throw,  the  hand 
and  arm  are  dropped  back  into  the  same  position 
as  described  in  Illustration  No.  I  for  the  overhand 
throw. 


Illustration  3 


Illustration  3.  Shows  the  thrower  just  at  the 
landing  of  the  hop.  The  right  hand  is  turned  with 
the  back  down.  The  arm  is  being  extended  back- 
ward for  the  overhand  throw.  The  left  foot  is 
just  starting  the  forward  step.  The  throw  is  begun 
when  the  left  stride  is  complete. 

138 


Illustration  4 

Illustration  4.  Shows  the  thrower  making  the 
cross  step  which  many  throwers  use  in  place  of  the 
hop.  The  arm  is  extended  backward  and  the  back 
of  the  hand  turned  downward  the  same  as  if  the 
hop  were  used. 

139 


Illustration  5 

Illustration  5.  The  thrower  has  stepped  forward 
with  left  foot  from  the  top  of  cross  step,  and  is  in 
position  to  make  the  throw  which  will  be  much  the 
same  as  throwing  a  baseball  overhand.  Care  must 
be  taken  at  this  point  to  keep  the  javelin  pointed 
straight  ahead  and  slightly  elevated  at  front  end. 
140 


The  thrower  should  get  his  back  and  shoulder  into 
the  effort  as  much  as  possible.  The  reverse  of  the 
feet  follows  immediately  after  the  throw  is  made. 


Illustration  6 


Illustration  6.     The  javelin  has    just    left    the 
thrower's  hand.     The  '  arm  is   fully  extended  and 
the  reverse  is  just  beginning.     Note  the  angle  at 
which  the  javelin  leaves  the  hand. 
141 


Illustration  7 


Illustration  j.    The  javelin  has  been  thrown  and 

the  thrower  is  just  completing  the  reverse.     His 

weight  is  on  the  right  foot,  and  the  left  is  used  to 

assist  in  maintaining  the  balance.     Sometimes  the 

142 


thrower  prevents  a  foul  by  running  to  the  left  along 
the  throw-line.  Following  the  throw  the  arm  is 
whipped  across  the  body  in  a  similar  manner  to  the 
form  of  a  baseball  thrower. 


143 


CROSS  COUNTRY  RUNNING 

Cross  country  running  when  properly  conducted, 
is  a  splendid  exercise  for  general  development. 
Cross  country  running  was  originally  considered  of 
value  in  developing  distance  runners  for  track  con- 
tests, but  it  is  now  recognized  as  a  separate  sport 
with  its  dual  and  intercollegiate  championship 
meets.  The  season  is  properly  in  the  fall  and  early 
winter.  The  distances  covered  in  cross  country 
races  are  from  3  to  7  miles.  The  cross  country 
runs  in  the  United  States  are  quite  generally  road 
races.  The  courses  in  so  far  as  possible  should  be 
laid  out  on  the  sod  and  cinders ;  dirt  roads  are  far 
better  than  pavements. 

Regular  track  suits  are  usually  worn,  but  in  cold 
weather  sweat  shirts  and  gloves  should  be  worn. 
Camphorated  oil  and  wintergreen  should  be  rubbed 
on  the  legs.  If  the  weather  is  very  cold  it  is  well 
to  wear  fleece-lined  drawers.  It  is  best  to  wear 
socks  under  the  shoes.  Cross  country  men  fre- 
quently get  blisters  on  their  feet.  In  this  case  they 
should  not  be  opened  but  should  be  painted  with 
compound  tincture  of  benzoin. 

TRAINING  FOR  CROSS  COUNTRY  RUNNING. 

Early  in  the  season  the  work  should  consist  of 

foing  over  the  full  course  three  times  a  week  as 
ollows : 

If  training  for  a  five-mile  race  start  by  running 
about  a  mile,then  walk  until  rested,  run  again,  then 

144 


walk  and  so  on  until  the  distance  is  covered.  As 
the  season  advances  the  amount  of  running  should 
be  increased,  and  the  amount  of  walking  decreased 
until  the  runner  is  able  to  cover  the  full  distance 
without  difficulty.  The  practice  runs  should  be 
taken  four  or  five  times  a  week,  later  in  the  season. 
In  the  early  season  it  is  well  to  appoint  an  experi- 
enced man  as  leader  to  set  a  moderate  pace  and 
to  see  that  none  of  the  runners  overwork. 

The  same  relative  practices  should  prevail  in 
training  for  cross  country  running  as  in  long  dis- 
tance running.  The  runner  training  for  a  five- 
mile  run  should  arrange  his  work  as  follows : 

One  night  he  should  run  from  three  to  four  miles 
at  about  his  five-mile  pace.  On  another  night  he 
should  run  the  five  miles  at  a  somewhat  slower  pace. 
On  another  night  he  should  run  farther  than  the 
full  distance,  for  instance,  about  six  or  seven  miles 
at  an  easy  pace. 

Judging  the  pace  is  very  important  in  cross  coun- 
try*running.  As  in  the  distance  run,  the  pace  should 
be  even.  The  runner  should  learn  from  practice 
just  how  fast  a  pace  he  can  maintain.  If  he  goes 
much  faster  or  slower  than  his  normal  pace  he  will 
not  be  able  to  make  his  best  time.  In  the  practice 
runs  it  is  well  to  increase  the  speed  for  the  last  quar- 
ter mile  and  to  sprint  at  the  finish.  When  the  run- 
ner is  following  his  proper  pace  in  a  five-mile  race, 
he  will-  usually  feel  quite  distressed  at  the  end  of 
his  first  two  miles.  At  about  this  point  he  gets 
his  second  wind,  his  strength  returns  and  he  runs 
145 


much  easier  for  the  next  two  miles.  For  the  last 
mile  he  must  exert  all  of  his  will  power  to  make 
the  best  possible  finish. 

The  form  in  cross-country  running  is  much  the 
same  as  in  distance  running,  except  that  the  stride 
is  shortened  and  the  runner  lands  farther  back  on 
the  ball  of  his  foot.  The  arms  should  be  carried 
naturally  at  the  side  and  should  be  completely  re- 
laxed except  in  the  finish  of  the  run  when  they 
should  be  swung  vigorously  to  assist  the  legs.  In 
running  up  hill  the  runner  should  lean  well  for- 
ward and  should  shorten  his  strides.  In  going  down 
hill  the  body  is  held  more  erect,  and  the  feet  are 
thro\vn  along  in  an  easy  stride.  The  air  should  be 
taken  into  the  lungs  through  the  nose  and  mouth 
in  long,  even  breaths. 

In  the  progress  of  the  race  it  is  well  for  the  run- 
ner to  keep  his  mind  on  matters  foreign  to  the  race, 
and  not  to  think  about  how  tired  he  is.  Runners 
prefer  going  over  a  cross-country  course  where  the 
scene  is  continually  changing,  to  running  five  m^es 
on  a  track. 


2142 

146 


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